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VOLCANISM
The Walker School
Geology
Volcanism is a Constructive Process
   Atmosphere
   Water
   Crust




     Painting of Early Earth’s Volcanism
Current Volcanism
   Iceland
   Hawaiian Islands
   Azores
   Galapagos Islands


                        Volcanism at Hawaii’s National Park
Notable Volcanic Eruptions




                             Table 5-1, p. 135
Mount Vesuvius Continues to Errupt




                               Fig. 5-1, p. 134
Maps of the World’s Major Volcanoes

                            •550 Are Currently
                            Active

                            •About 1 dozen
                            are erupting at
                            anyone time

                            •Responsible for
                            extrusive igneous
                            rock
Viewing Volcanoes in Google Earth
Basic Volcanic Structure
Pyroclastic Materials
   Blocks
   Bombs
   Lapilli
   Ash

              Size



                     Volcanic Bomb
Lava Tubes at Volcanic National Park, HI




                                    Lava Tube
                                    in Hawaii




                                      Fig. 5-3a, p. 137
Lava Textures
Pahoehoe (pah-hoy-hoy) is            Aa (ah-ah) is characterized by a
characterized by its smooth and      rough, clinkery surface and is
often ropey or wrinkly surface and   what most viscous and hot lava
is generally formed from more        flows look like.
fluid lava flows.




                                                                  Fig. 5-4a, p. 137
Lava Composition
   Felsic Lava: high percentage (>63%) of silica, and
    trapped gasses; highest viscosity, lowest temperatures
   Andesitic Lava: (52-63%) of silica
   Mafic Lava: (45-52%) of silica + high percentage of
    Magnesium (Mg); typically occur at subduction zones
   Balsitic Lava: (45-52%) of silica + high percentage of
    Iron (Fe); typically occur at oceanic divergent pages
   Ultramafic Lava: (=<45%) of silica; lowest vicsosity,
    highest temperatures
Columnar Jointing at Devil’s Post Pile
National Monument, CA




                                         Fig. 5-5b, p. 138
Inversion of Topography
   1. Lava flows into the
    valley
   2. Lava cools and
    crystallizes, forming
    extrusive igneous rocks.
   3. Areas adjacent to
    the flow erode more
    easily then the flow
   4. Over time, an
    inversion is produced.

                               Fig. 5-6ab, p. 139
Craters of the Moon National Monument, ID
http://www.nps.gov/crmo/




                                    Fig. 5-3b, p. 137
VOLCANIC TYPES
Types of Volcanoes
Fig. 5-18, p. 149
Plutonic Bodies
Formation of a Caldera




                         Fig. 5-9a-d, p. 142
Crater Lake, OR Caldera


Caldera Floor of Crater Lake




                               Wizard Island, Crater Lake, OR
Shield Volcanos




                  Fig. 5-10a, p. 143
Shield Volcano, Mauna Loa, HI




                •Low Viscosity Basalt Flows
                •Lava fountains
                •Most common in ocean basins
Cinder Cones




               Fig. 5-11a, p. 144
Cinder Cones, Mojave Desert, CA




                •Eruptions are short-lived.
                •Large, bowl-shaped craters.
                •Ash builds up rapidly.
                •Few lava flows.
                •Lava flows typically from base of cone.
Stratovolcanoes (Composite Cones)




                             Fig. 5-13a, p. 146
Stratovolcano, Mt. Rainier, WA




From Space




             •Composed of layered sills.
             •Lahars, or volcanic mud flows are common.
             •Have steep slops near summit.
             •Lava flows from andesite.
Lahar Flows, Mt. Pinatubo, Philippines




 Mt. Pinatubo
 from Space
                                   Fig. 5-14a, p. 146
Lava Domes




             Fig. 5-15b, p. 147
Lava Dome, Mt. St. Helens, WA




 •Composed of felsic magma.
 •Formed from intermediate magma forced up under great pressure.
 •Highly unstable, will collapse under weight of rock.

                                                              Fig. 5-15a, p. 147
Mt. Saint Helens Eruption
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bgRnVhbfIKQ
VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS
Types of Erruptions
Fig. 5-17, p. 148
Fissure Eruptions
   Generated along a
    linear fracture
   Composed of low-
    viscosity melt
   Commonly occur along
    divergent plate
    boundaries
   Also common on the
    edges of large          Fissure eruption in Iceland
    volcanoes.
   Produces a curtain of
    fire.
Columbia River Basalt Plateau




                                Fig. 5-19, p. 150
Volcanic Explosive Index
Primary Effects of Volcanoes
   Pyroclastic Flows
   Fumaroles
   Landslides
   Ash Fall
   Earthquakes
   High Temperatures
Secondary Effects of Explosions
   Suffocation from Ash
   Asphyxiation from Volcanic Gasses
   Tsunamis
   Temperatures Decreases
Environmental Effects
   Involved in the formation of continental crust and
    offset weathering and erosion
   Provide nutrient rich soils
   By trapping clouds at their peaks, water for
    agriculture
   Agriculture based cultures are attracted to their
    bases
Volcanic Gasses
   Water Vapor
   Carbon Dioxide
   Nitrogen
   Sulfur Dioxide
   Hydrogen Sulfide
   Carbon Monoxide
   Hydrogen
   Chlorine
Gasses emitted from fumaroles at the Sulfur Works in
Lassen Volcanic National Park, CA

                                                       Fig. 5-2, p. 136
Effects of Volcanoes on Climate
   Nucleation, condensation, and sedimentation of aerosols (acid rain)
   Change in Albedo from ash cloud
   Tropospheric cooling from the addition of sulfur to the stratsophere
   Ozone destruction through the formation of atomic chlorine
SUPER ERUPTIONS
Supereruptions
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/megavolcano/about.html
Discovery Questions
   What does it take to be classified as a super
    eruption?
   When did the last one occur? Why is their
    controversy about the date?
   What would be the primary effects of such an
    eruption?
   For those who survived the initial eruption, what
    would happen in the following months, or years?
   How did the Toba explosion effect the evolution of
    humans?
DISTRIBUTION &
MONITORING
Distribution of Volcanoes
   Circum-Pacific
    Belt (60%)
   Mediterranean
    Belt (20%)
   Mid-Oceanic
    Ridges (20%)

   More common along both divergent than convergent plate boundaries.
   Mainly composed of intrusive magma flows.
   Composed of mafic magma that forms beneath spreading plates.
   Pyroclastic materials are not common because lava is fluid.
   Water pressure prevents gasses from expanding and escaping.
                                                                         Fig. 5-20, p. 151
USGS Volcano Hazards Program
http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/
Alaska’s Volcano Observatory
http://www.avo.alaska.edu/
Alaska’s Volcanoes
Cascade Volcano Observatory
http://vulcan.wr.usgs.gov/
The Cascade Range
Lassen Peak, CA




            Largest Lava Dome in the World
Lassen Peak Diagram




                      Concept Art, p. 154
Mid-Atlantic Ridge & Iceland
Formation of Surtsey Island, Iceland
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4MmX_i7S9u4
Important Monitoring Techniques




                              Fig. 5-23, p. 159
Fumarole Gas Monitoring
   Chemically-selective sensors
    for SO2 and CO2 measure
    gas concentrations and a wind
    sensor measures wind speed
    and direction.
   Data from solar-powered
    stations are transmitted to
    GOES geostationary satellite
    and then down to
    observatories every 10
    minutes, providing near real
    time data on degassing of
    volcanoes
Ground Deformation Monitoring
   Paint
   Electronic Distance Meters
       determine the horizontal movements
        that occur on active volcanoes
   Tiltmeters
       leveling surveys to measure vertical
        motions
   Global Positioning Systems
       allows us to measure horizontal
        motions much more accurately and
        conveniently, and also to estimate
        vertical motions in the same survey
Remote Sensing
   The Advanced Very High
    Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR)
    is a space-borne sensor
    embarked on the NOAA family
    of polar orbiting platforms.
   The primary purpose of these
    instruments is to monitor clouds
    and to measure the thermal
    emission (cooling) of the Earth.
   The main difficulty associated
    with these investigations is to
    properly deal with the many
    limitations of these instruments,
    especially in the early period
    (sensor calibration, orbital drift,
    limited spectral and directional
    sampling, etc).
WHAT ARE BLACK
SMOKERS?
Hydrothermal Vents
   Distributes heat and
    drives water circulation
    in the ocean through
    convection
   Provides energy source
    in the form of hydrogen
    sulfide to benthic
    chemotrophs
   Distributes minerals and
    influences the
    composition of the ocean
Hydrothermal Plume



                                         White
                         Black smoker   smoker

                           Sulfide
                           deposit

                         Tube worms
                     Magma White clam


                        White crab
Location of Major Vent Systems
Learn More About Vents
http://www.divediscover.whoi.edu/vents/index.html
Hydrothermal Vent Chemistry

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Volcanism

  • 2. Volcanism is a Constructive Process  Atmosphere  Water  Crust Painting of Early Earth’s Volcanism
  • 3. Current Volcanism  Iceland  Hawaiian Islands  Azores  Galapagos Islands Volcanism at Hawaii’s National Park
  • 4. Notable Volcanic Eruptions Table 5-1, p. 135
  • 5. Mount Vesuvius Continues to Errupt Fig. 5-1, p. 134
  • 6. Maps of the World’s Major Volcanoes •550 Are Currently Active •About 1 dozen are erupting at anyone time •Responsible for extrusive igneous rock
  • 7. Viewing Volcanoes in Google Earth
  • 9. Pyroclastic Materials  Blocks  Bombs  Lapilli  Ash Size Volcanic Bomb
  • 10. Lava Tubes at Volcanic National Park, HI Lava Tube in Hawaii Fig. 5-3a, p. 137
  • 11. Lava Textures Pahoehoe (pah-hoy-hoy) is Aa (ah-ah) is characterized by a characterized by its smooth and rough, clinkery surface and is often ropey or wrinkly surface and what most viscous and hot lava is generally formed from more flows look like. fluid lava flows. Fig. 5-4a, p. 137
  • 12. Lava Composition  Felsic Lava: high percentage (>63%) of silica, and trapped gasses; highest viscosity, lowest temperatures  Andesitic Lava: (52-63%) of silica  Mafic Lava: (45-52%) of silica + high percentage of Magnesium (Mg); typically occur at subduction zones  Balsitic Lava: (45-52%) of silica + high percentage of Iron (Fe); typically occur at oceanic divergent pages  Ultramafic Lava: (=<45%) of silica; lowest vicsosity, highest temperatures
  • 13. Columnar Jointing at Devil’s Post Pile National Monument, CA Fig. 5-5b, p. 138
  • 14. Inversion of Topography  1. Lava flows into the valley  2. Lava cools and crystallizes, forming extrusive igneous rocks.  3. Areas adjacent to the flow erode more easily then the flow  4. Over time, an inversion is produced. Fig. 5-6ab, p. 139
  • 15. Craters of the Moon National Monument, ID http://www.nps.gov/crmo/ Fig. 5-3b, p. 137
  • 20. Formation of a Caldera Fig. 5-9a-d, p. 142
  • 21. Crater Lake, OR Caldera Caldera Floor of Crater Lake Wizard Island, Crater Lake, OR
  • 22. Shield Volcanos Fig. 5-10a, p. 143
  • 23. Shield Volcano, Mauna Loa, HI •Low Viscosity Basalt Flows •Lava fountains •Most common in ocean basins
  • 24. Cinder Cones Fig. 5-11a, p. 144
  • 25. Cinder Cones, Mojave Desert, CA •Eruptions are short-lived. •Large, bowl-shaped craters. •Ash builds up rapidly. •Few lava flows. •Lava flows typically from base of cone.
  • 26. Stratovolcanoes (Composite Cones) Fig. 5-13a, p. 146
  • 27. Stratovolcano, Mt. Rainier, WA From Space •Composed of layered sills. •Lahars, or volcanic mud flows are common. •Have steep slops near summit. •Lava flows from andesite.
  • 28. Lahar Flows, Mt. Pinatubo, Philippines Mt. Pinatubo from Space Fig. 5-14a, p. 146
  • 29. Lava Domes Fig. 5-15b, p. 147
  • 30. Lava Dome, Mt. St. Helens, WA •Composed of felsic magma. •Formed from intermediate magma forced up under great pressure. •Highly unstable, will collapse under weight of rock. Fig. 5-15a, p. 147
  • 31. Mt. Saint Helens Eruption http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bgRnVhbfIKQ
  • 35. Fissure Eruptions  Generated along a linear fracture  Composed of low- viscosity melt  Commonly occur along divergent plate boundaries  Also common on the edges of large Fissure eruption in Iceland volcanoes.  Produces a curtain of fire.
  • 36. Columbia River Basalt Plateau Fig. 5-19, p. 150
  • 38. Primary Effects of Volcanoes  Pyroclastic Flows  Fumaroles  Landslides  Ash Fall  Earthquakes  High Temperatures
  • 39. Secondary Effects of Explosions  Suffocation from Ash  Asphyxiation from Volcanic Gasses  Tsunamis  Temperatures Decreases
  • 40. Environmental Effects  Involved in the formation of continental crust and offset weathering and erosion  Provide nutrient rich soils  By trapping clouds at their peaks, water for agriculture  Agriculture based cultures are attracted to their bases
  • 41. Volcanic Gasses  Water Vapor  Carbon Dioxide  Nitrogen  Sulfur Dioxide  Hydrogen Sulfide  Carbon Monoxide  Hydrogen  Chlorine Gasses emitted from fumaroles at the Sulfur Works in Lassen Volcanic National Park, CA Fig. 5-2, p. 136
  • 42. Effects of Volcanoes on Climate  Nucleation, condensation, and sedimentation of aerosols (acid rain)  Change in Albedo from ash cloud  Tropospheric cooling from the addition of sulfur to the stratsophere  Ozone destruction through the formation of atomic chlorine
  • 45. Discovery Questions  What does it take to be classified as a super eruption?  When did the last one occur? Why is their controversy about the date?  What would be the primary effects of such an eruption?  For those who survived the initial eruption, what would happen in the following months, or years?  How did the Toba explosion effect the evolution of humans?
  • 47. Distribution of Volcanoes  Circum-Pacific Belt (60%)  Mediterranean Belt (20%)  Mid-Oceanic Ridges (20%)  More common along both divergent than convergent plate boundaries.  Mainly composed of intrusive magma flows.  Composed of mafic magma that forms beneath spreading plates.  Pyroclastic materials are not common because lava is fluid.  Water pressure prevents gasses from expanding and escaping. Fig. 5-20, p. 151
  • 48. USGS Volcano Hazards Program http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/
  • 53. Lassen Peak, CA  Largest Lava Dome in the World
  • 54. Lassen Peak Diagram Concept Art, p. 154
  • 56. Formation of Surtsey Island, Iceland http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4MmX_i7S9u4
  • 57. Important Monitoring Techniques Fig. 5-23, p. 159
  • 58. Fumarole Gas Monitoring  Chemically-selective sensors for SO2 and CO2 measure gas concentrations and a wind sensor measures wind speed and direction.  Data from solar-powered stations are transmitted to GOES geostationary satellite and then down to observatories every 10 minutes, providing near real time data on degassing of volcanoes
  • 59. Ground Deformation Monitoring  Paint  Electronic Distance Meters  determine the horizontal movements that occur on active volcanoes  Tiltmeters  leveling surveys to measure vertical motions  Global Positioning Systems  allows us to measure horizontal motions much more accurately and conveniently, and also to estimate vertical motions in the same survey
  • 60. Remote Sensing  The Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR) is a space-borne sensor embarked on the NOAA family of polar orbiting platforms.  The primary purpose of these instruments is to monitor clouds and to measure the thermal emission (cooling) of the Earth.  The main difficulty associated with these investigations is to properly deal with the many limitations of these instruments, especially in the early period (sensor calibration, orbital drift, limited spectral and directional sampling, etc).
  • 62. Hydrothermal Vents  Distributes heat and drives water circulation in the ocean through convection  Provides energy source in the form of hydrogen sulfide to benthic chemotrophs  Distributes minerals and influences the composition of the ocean
  • 63. Hydrothermal Plume White Black smoker smoker Sulfide deposit Tube worms Magma White clam White crab
  • 64. Location of Major Vent Systems
  • 65. Learn More About Vents http://www.divediscover.whoi.edu/vents/index.html