Contact metasomatism forms new minerals through reactions between intrusive rocks and escaping gases from magma chambers. Important requirements include a magma source of ore ingredients and intrusion into reactive host rocks. Metals like Fe, Cu, Zn, and W can be deposited through this process. Hydrothermal deposits are formed when hot, mineral-laden waters circulate through fractures, leaching and redepositing metals. Sedimentary deposits can form through evaporation, biochemical processes, or mechanical concentration of minerals in placer deposits.
CLASSIFICATION OF ORE DEPOSITS
The Mixture of ore minerals are gangue minerals form an Ore deposit. The ore
deposits are generally found enclosed within the country rocks. The ore deposits
are formed in many different ways. Depending upon the process that may
operate to produce them, the ore deposits may be classified as follow:
Magmatic ore deposits.
Sublimation ore deposits.
Pegmatitic ore deposits.
Contact metasomatic ore deposits.
Hydrothermal ore deposits
Cavity filling deposits.
Replacement deposits.
Sedimentation ore deposits.
Evaporation ore deposits.
Residual and mechanical concentration deposits
Metamorphic ore deposits.
MAGMATIC ORE DEPOSITS:
The magmatic ore deposits are the magmatic products which crystallize from
magmas. The magmatic ore deposits are classified as follows:
o Early magmatic deposits
o Late magmatic deposits
Early magmatic deposits:
Early magmatic deposits are formed during the
early stage of the magmatic period. In this case the
ore minerals crystallize earlier than the rock
silicates. The Minerals of Nickel, Chromium, and
Platinum are usually found as early magmatic
deposits. The early magmatic deposits can be sub
divided into two groups:
o Dissemination deposits
o Segregation deposits
Dissemination deposits:
When magma crystallizes
conditions, a granular igneous rock is formed. In
such a rock early formed crystals of
may occur in dissemination.
Segregation deposits:
Magmatic segregation deposits are
formed as a result of gravitative
crystallization differentiation. In
case, the ore mineral which crystallize
early, get ocean-trated on a particular
part of igneous part. The ore deposits
thus formed are known as “Segregation
deposits”.
rly under seated
ore minerals
such
Late Magmatic Deposits:
The ore deposits which are formed to
called late magmatic deposits. The late magmatic deposits contain those ore
minerals which have crystallized at rather low temperature from the residual
magma. The magma which is left after crystallization of early for
is called residual magma. This magma frequently contains many ore minerals. The
late magmatic deposits include most of the magmatic deposits of iron and
titanium ores, these deposits are almost always associated with mafic igneous
rocks.
SUBLIMATION DEPOSITS:
Sublimation is a very minor process of formation of ore deposits. Sublimation
deposits contain only those minerals which have been volatilized by hear and
subsequently redeposit in the same form at low temperature and pressure. The
sublimation deposits are found associated with Volcanoes and Fumaroles. Sulfur
of this origin has been mined in Japan, Italy, and Mexico.
CLASSIFICATION OF ORE DEPOSITS
The Mixture of ore minerals are gangue minerals form an Ore deposit. The ore
deposits are generally found enclosed within the country rocks. The ore deposits
are formed in many different ways. Depending upon the process that may
operate to produce them, the ore deposits may be classified as follow:
Magmatic ore deposits.
Sublimation ore deposits.
Pegmatitic ore deposits.
Contact metasomatic ore deposits.
Hydrothermal ore deposits
Cavity filling deposits.
Replacement deposits.
Sedimentation ore deposits.
Evaporation ore deposits.
Residual and mechanical concentration deposits
Metamorphic ore deposits.
MAGMATIC ORE DEPOSITS:
The magmatic ore deposits are the magmatic products which crystallize from
magmas. The magmatic ore deposits are classified as follows:
o Early magmatic deposits
o Late magmatic deposits
Early magmatic deposits:
Early magmatic deposits are formed during the
early stage of the magmatic period. In this case the
ore minerals crystallize earlier than the rock
silicates. The Minerals of Nickel, Chromium, and
Platinum are usually found as early magmatic
deposits. The early magmatic deposits can be sub
divided into two groups:
o Dissemination deposits
o Segregation deposits
Dissemination deposits:
When magma crystallizes
conditions, a granular igneous rock is formed. In
such a rock early formed crystals of
may occur in dissemination.
Segregation deposits:
Magmatic segregation deposits are
formed as a result of gravitative
crystallization differentiation. In
case, the ore mineral which crystallize
early, get ocean-trated on a particular
part of igneous part. The ore deposits
thus formed are known as “Segregation
deposits”.
rly under seated
ore minerals
such
Late Magmatic Deposits:
The ore deposits which are formed to
called late magmatic deposits. The late magmatic deposits contain those ore
minerals which have crystallized at rather low temperature from the residual
magma. The magma which is left after crystallization of early for
is called residual magma. This magma frequently contains many ore minerals. The
late magmatic deposits include most of the magmatic deposits of iron and
titanium ores, these deposits are almost always associated with mafic igneous
rocks.
SUBLIMATION DEPOSITS:
Sublimation is a very minor process of formation of ore deposits. Sublimation
deposits contain only those minerals which have been volatilized by hear and
subsequently redeposit in the same form at low temperature and pressure. The
sublimation deposits are found associated with Volcanoes and Fumaroles. Sulfur
of this origin has been mined in Japan, Italy, and Mexico.
Metallogenic Epoch and Province
Metallogenetic Epochs
Metallogenetic epochs, as defined above, are specific periods characterised by formation of large number of mineral deposits. It does not mean that all the mineral deposits formed during a definite metallogenetic epochs. In India the chief metallogenetic epochs were:
1. Precambrian
2. Late Palaeozoic
3. Late Mesozoic to Early Tertiary
Minerals are formed by changes in chemical energy in systems which contain one fluid or vapor phase. In nature, minerals are formed by crystallisation or precipitation from concentrated solutions. These solutions are called as ore-bearing fluids. Ore-bearing fluids are characterised by high concentration of certain metallic or other elements.
Fluids are the most effective agents for the transport of material in the mantle and the Earth's crust.
Information about these fluids is an invaluable aid in mineral exploration.
Conventional academic methods of analysing fluid inclusions are too slow and tedious to be of practical application in typical mineral exploration activities.
However, the academic data from numerous studies does show that CO2 is an exceptionally important indicator when exploring for most types of gold deposit.
Because the baro-acoustic decrepitation method is a rapid and reliable method to measure CO2 contents in fluids, it can be used to study a spatial array of data and it is an invaluable and practical exploration method.
Measurements of temperatures of fluid inclusions does not usually help in mineral exploration as hydrothermal minerals deposit over a wide temperature range and there is no specific temperature which is indicative of mineralisation. However, if temperatures are available on a large spatial array of samples, then temperature trends may be a useful exploration method to find the hottest part of the system, which is presumably the location of the best economic mineralisation. Baro-acoustic decrepitation is the most practical method to determine temperatures of the large numbers of samples required.
Salinities of fluid inclusions are of limited use in exploration and are difficult to measure. However, they can be used to recognise intrusion related hydrothermal systems.
The name ophiolite derived from Greek root which means
Ophio : snake or serpent Litho : Stone
The green colour, structure and texture of sheared ultramafic rocks is similar to some serpents
Economically :
Massive Sulphide
It founded within pillow lava most of massive Sulphide associated in ophiolites have well developed Gossans (bright colored iron oxide, hydroxides, and sulfides) which is very rich in gold.
Chromite
Stratiform (be tabular or pencil shape) or podiform (irregular shape) within ultra-mafic rocks
These deposits are developed on serpentinite peridotite
Laterites (nickel and iron)
Asbestos
Talc
Magenesite
ophiolite sequence :
Sediments
Pillow Lavas
Dykes
Gabbros
Layered Gabbro
Layered Peridotite
Upper mantle
Texture of Ore Minerals; Importance of Studying Textures; Individual Grains Properties; Filling of voids; Texture Types; Genetically differentiated between Texture types; Secondary textures from replacement; Hypogene Texture; Supergene Texture; Primary texture formed from Melts; Primary texture of open-space deposition; Secondary textures from cooling; Secondary textures from deformation; TEXTURES OF ECONOMIC ORE DEPOSITS; Textures of Magmatic ores; Cumulus textures; Intergranular or intercumulus textures; Exsolution textures; Textures of hydrothermal ore deposits and skarns; Replacement textures; Open space filling textures; Textures characteristic of surfacial or near surface environments and processes; Criteria for identifying replacement textures; Vein and Veining have different Nature Features
Metallogenic Epoch and Province
Metallogenetic Epochs
Metallogenetic epochs, as defined above, are specific periods characterised by formation of large number of mineral deposits. It does not mean that all the mineral deposits formed during a definite metallogenetic epochs. In India the chief metallogenetic epochs were:
1. Precambrian
2. Late Palaeozoic
3. Late Mesozoic to Early Tertiary
Minerals are formed by changes in chemical energy in systems which contain one fluid or vapor phase. In nature, minerals are formed by crystallisation or precipitation from concentrated solutions. These solutions are called as ore-bearing fluids. Ore-bearing fluids are characterised by high concentration of certain metallic or other elements.
Fluids are the most effective agents for the transport of material in the mantle and the Earth's crust.
Information about these fluids is an invaluable aid in mineral exploration.
Conventional academic methods of analysing fluid inclusions are too slow and tedious to be of practical application in typical mineral exploration activities.
However, the academic data from numerous studies does show that CO2 is an exceptionally important indicator when exploring for most types of gold deposit.
Because the baro-acoustic decrepitation method is a rapid and reliable method to measure CO2 contents in fluids, it can be used to study a spatial array of data and it is an invaluable and practical exploration method.
Measurements of temperatures of fluid inclusions does not usually help in mineral exploration as hydrothermal minerals deposit over a wide temperature range and there is no specific temperature which is indicative of mineralisation. However, if temperatures are available on a large spatial array of samples, then temperature trends may be a useful exploration method to find the hottest part of the system, which is presumably the location of the best economic mineralisation. Baro-acoustic decrepitation is the most practical method to determine temperatures of the large numbers of samples required.
Salinities of fluid inclusions are of limited use in exploration and are difficult to measure. However, they can be used to recognise intrusion related hydrothermal systems.
The name ophiolite derived from Greek root which means
Ophio : snake or serpent Litho : Stone
The green colour, structure and texture of sheared ultramafic rocks is similar to some serpents
Economically :
Massive Sulphide
It founded within pillow lava most of massive Sulphide associated in ophiolites have well developed Gossans (bright colored iron oxide, hydroxides, and sulfides) which is very rich in gold.
Chromite
Stratiform (be tabular or pencil shape) or podiform (irregular shape) within ultra-mafic rocks
These deposits are developed on serpentinite peridotite
Laterites (nickel and iron)
Asbestos
Talc
Magenesite
ophiolite sequence :
Sediments
Pillow Lavas
Dykes
Gabbros
Layered Gabbro
Layered Peridotite
Upper mantle
Texture of Ore Minerals; Importance of Studying Textures; Individual Grains Properties; Filling of voids; Texture Types; Genetically differentiated between Texture types; Secondary textures from replacement; Hypogene Texture; Supergene Texture; Primary texture formed from Melts; Primary texture of open-space deposition; Secondary textures from cooling; Secondary textures from deformation; TEXTURES OF ECONOMIC ORE DEPOSITS; Textures of Magmatic ores; Cumulus textures; Intergranular or intercumulus textures; Exsolution textures; Textures of hydrothermal ore deposits and skarns; Replacement textures; Open space filling textures; Textures characteristic of surfacial or near surface environments and processes; Criteria for identifying replacement textures; Vein and Veining have different Nature Features
HYDROTHERMAL PROCESSES; Causes of deposition; Origin of Hydrothermal Fluids (or The Main Sources of Water in Hydrothermal System); The Main Steps in Hydrothermal Processes; Classification of Hydrothermal Deposits; Different Types of Hydrothermal Vein; Different styles of Hydrothermal ore deposits; Orogenic Hydrothermal Ore Deposits; Hypozonal: Orogenic, hydrothermal ore deposits; Epizonal:; Mesozonal
SUPERGENE ENRICHMENT; Definition; Zones; Morphology of Zoning; Oxidized zone ; Supergene zone ; Gossans and Cappings; Chemical Changes Involved; Electrowinning; Formation of Copper Oxides
Courier management system project report.pdfKamal Acharya
It is now-a-days very important for the people to send or receive articles like imported furniture, electronic items, gifts, business goods and the like. People depend vastly on different transport systems which mostly use the manual way of receiving and delivering the articles. There is no way to track the articles till they are received and there is no way to let the customer know what happened in transit, once he booked some articles. In such a situation, we need a system which completely computerizes the cargo activities including time to time tracking of the articles sent. This need is fulfilled by Courier Management System software which is online software for the cargo management people that enables them to receive the goods from a source and send them to a required destination and track their status from time to time.
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COLLEGE BUS MANAGEMENT SYSTEM PROJECT REPORT.pdfKamal Acharya
The College Bus Management system is completely developed by Visual Basic .NET Version. The application is connect with most secured database language MS SQL Server. The application is develop by using best combination of front-end and back-end languages. The application is totally design like flat user interface. This flat user interface is more attractive user interface in 2017. The application is gives more important to the system functionality. The application is to manage the student’s details, driver’s details, bus details, bus route details, bus fees details and more. The application has only one unit for admin. The admin can manage the entire application. The admin can login into the application by using username and password of the admin. The application is develop for big and small colleges. It is more user friendly for non-computer person. Even they can easily learn how to manage the application within hours. The application is more secure by the admin. The system will give an effective output for the VB.Net and SQL Server given as input to the system. The compiled java program given as input to the system, after scanning the program will generate different reports. The application generates the report for users. The admin can view and download the report of the data. The application deliver the excel format reports. Because, excel formatted reports is very easy to understand the income and expense of the college bus. This application is mainly develop for windows operating system users. In 2017, 73% of people enterprises are using windows operating system. So the application will easily install for all the windows operating system users. The application-developed size is very low. The application consumes very low space in disk. Therefore, the user can allocate very minimum local disk space for this application.
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Explore the innovative world of trenchless pipe repair with our comprehensive guide, "The Benefits and Techniques of Trenchless Pipe Repair." This document delves into the modern methods of repairing underground pipes without the need for extensive excavation, highlighting the numerous advantages and the latest techniques used in the industry.
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Hybrid optimization of pumped hydro system and solar- Engr. Abdul-Azeez.pdffxintegritypublishin
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1. Contact Metasomatism
• Contact metasomatism is a process of formation of new mineral by
reaction between the contact rock and the escaping high temperature
gaseous emanation with other important materials from the magma
chamber.
• For the deposit of this type, the magma must contain the ingredients
of mineral deposit and must be intruded at depth at the contact of
reactive rocks.
• PROCESS:
1. Recrystallization and recombination of rock mineral in the contact
zones, e.g. limestone and dolomite convert to marble, shale to
hornfels and sandstone to quartzite.
2. The temperature for contact metasomatism may possibly ranging
from 400 to 800⁰ C, or even higher.
3. The composition, size, shape, form and depth of formation of the
intrusive body play important role in formation of contact
metasomatism.
2.
3. • Important sources of ore deposit are Fe, Cu, Zn, W, and other
metals.
• Barytes occurs in limestone of vempalle formation (cuddaph),
Andhra pradesh.
4. Hydrothermal deposit
• Hydrothermal mineral deposits are those in which hot, mineral laden
water (hydrothermal solution) serves as a concentrating,
transporting, and depositing agent.
• The solutions are thought to arise in most cases from the action of
deeply circulating water heated by magma. Other sources of heating
that may be involved include energy released by radioactive decay
or by faulting of the Earth's crust.
• Conditions necessary for the formation of hydrothermal ore deposits
include:
a) Presence of hot water to dissolve and transport minerals
b) Presence of interconnected openings in the rock to allow the
solutions to move
c) Availability of sites for the deposits, and
d) Chemical reaction that will result in deposition
5. Hydrothermal
Deposits
Hot water and gases
circulate through
fractures in crust
Metal ions leached
from rock at depth are
concentrated and
redeposited
Gold, zinc, lead,
copper
N. Lindsley-Griffin, 1998
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
Hot water and sulfide
particles issuing from a
black smoker, East Pacific
Rise
Sulfide
minerals
deposited here
Mineral Deposits
6. Hydrothermal deposits in
ophiolites (on-land fragments of ocean
lithosphere)
Veins are deposited
along fractures in
basalts of oceanic crust
-
Divergent margins,
oceanic rift valleys
Ores are transported by
subduction and plate
movement, emplaced
on land by terrane
accretion in ophiolites -
Convergent margins,
active continental
margins
Mineral Deposits
Houghton Mifflin, Dolgoff, 1998; N. Lindsley-Griffin, 1999
7. Hydrothermal ore deposits
are forming today in the
Imperial Valley of California -
a graben formed by rifting
along the northern end of the
East Pacific Rise which runs
up Gulf of CA.
Metallic ions are leached from the
sediments under the graben by hot
fluids resulting from volcanism.
Hot brines deposit siliceous scale
containing 20% copper and 8%
silver on the insides of pipes in
drilled wells.
Fig. B16.1, p. 494
Mineral Deposits
N. Lindsley-Griffin, 1999
8. Hydrothermal deposits forming
today in the Red Sea:
Brines remain pooled in the deep graben because they are denser than
sea water.
This hydrothermal deposit is called a stratabound deposit, because the
minerals are precipitated as layers interbedded with sediments.
Mineral Deposits
N. Lindsley-Griffin, 1999
Fig. B16.2, p. 495
9. Metamorphic deposit
• Metamorphic processes profoundly alter pre-existing mineral deposits
and form new ones.
• The chief agencies involved are heat, pressure, time, and various
solutions.
• The materials acted upon are either earlier formed mineral deposits or
rocks.
• Valuable nonmetallic mineral deposits are formed from rocks chiefly by
the crystallization and the combination of rock making minerals.
• Several kinds of nonmetallic mineral deposits are formed as a result of
regional metamorphism.
• The source materials are rock constitutions that have undergone
recrystallization or re-combination, or both.
• Rarely, water or carbon dioxide has been added, but other new
constitutions are not introduced as they are in contact metasomatism
deposits.
10.
11. • The enclosing rocks are wholly or in part metamorphosed; it is the rock
metamorphism that has given rise to the deposits.
• The chief deposits thus formed are asbestos, graphite, talc, soapstone,
andalusite-kyanite-sillimanite, dumortieritea, garnet, and possibly some
emery.
12. Sublimation
• Process by which solid material passes into gaseous state without
first becoming liquid.
• Sublimation is a process of mineral deposits associated with
volcanism, thermal springs and fumaroles where volatilised matter is
redeposited at lower temperature and pressure.
• Sulphur and Borax of Puga area, Ladakh are examples of such
deposit.
• They are associated with thermal springs and fumaroles.
13. Surfacial oxidation and supergene enrichment
• When ore deposits are exposed to the oxidation zone they are
weathered and altered with the country rocks.
• The surface waters oxidize many ore minerals and yield solvents that
dissolve other minerals.
• An orebody thus becomes oxidized and generally leached of many of
its valuable materials down to the groundwater table, or to depth
where oxidation cannot take place.
• The effects oxidation may, however, extend far below the one of
oxidation.
• As the cold, dilute, leaching solutions trickle downwards, they may lose
a part or all of their metallic content within the zone of oxidation to give
rise to oxidized ore deposits.
• The oxidized or near-surface part of an orebody is made colorful due to
the oxidation of sulfides to oxides and sulfates.
14. Contd………
• As the down trickling solutions penetrate
the water table, their metallic content may
be precipitated in the form of secondary
sulfides to give rise to a zone of
secondary or supergene sulfide
enrichment.
• The lower, unaffected part of the ore
body is called the hypogene zone.
• In some places the supergene zone is
absent and in rare cases the oxidized
zone may be shallow or lacking (as in
some glaciated areas undergoing rapid
erosion).
• Special conditions of time, climate,
physiographic development and
amenable ores are necessary for the
process of oxidation and supergene
enrichment to be effective.
• Such ores occur in most of the non-
glaciated land areas of the world.
15. Deposits in the zone of oxidation
When the oxidised zone is well developed and the secondary minerals
sufficiently concentrated, it is a highly profitable zone to mine as the
processing is much cheaper and easier and the metals more
concentrated. However, most oxidised zones have been mined because
they formed outcrops of easily identifiable gossans. The most common
minerals found in oxidised zones are:
• Copper: malachite, azurite, chrysocolla
• Gangue minerals: quartz (usually cryptocrystalline), baryte, calcite,
aragonite
• Iron: goethite, hematite
• Lead: anglesite, cerussite
• Manganese: pyrolusite, romanechite, rhodochrosite
• Nickel: gaspeite, garnierite
• Silver: native silver, chlorargyrite
• Zinc: smithsonite
16. Deposits in the zone of supergene enrichment
In the supergene zone metals are concntrated in a narrow band just
below the water table. This is the richest part of an ore deposit but in
many instances, is either only very thin or not developed at all. The
most common minerals found in supergene zones are:
• Copper: chalcocite, bornite
• Lead: supergene galena
• Nickel: violarite
• Silver: acanthite, native silver
• Zinc: supergene sphalerite, wurtzite
17. Sedimentary deposits form
by evaporation and
precipitation
Anhydrite, gypsum,
halite
Evaporite Deposits at Bonneville Salt Flats,
Utah N. Lindsley-Griffin, 1998
Mineral Deposits
18. Sedimentary deposits form by
biochemical reactions in
seawater
Banded iron formations were precipitated by biochemical
reactions in a low-oxygen atmosphere during the
Precambrian
N. Lindsley-Griffin, 1998
Mineral Deposits
Banded Iron Deposit, Lake Superior
19. Mechanical
Concentration
Placer deposits:
Heavy grains sorted
by currents
Deposited in rivers
or beaches
Previously weathered
from bedrock source
Gold, platinum,
diamonds, chromite,
Zirconium and Titanium
Olivine beach placers, South Point,
Hawaii
N. Lindsley-Griffin, 1998
Mineral Deposits
20. Placers are
deposited:
Behind rock bars
In rock holes
Below waterfalls
In point bars inside
meander loops
Downstream from a
tributary
Along beaches and
behind undulations
on the ocean floor.
Mineral Deposits
N. Lindsley-Griffin, 1999
21. Residual mineral deposits
form by chemical
weathering
Soluble minerals are leached - dissolved by rain water and
carried downward by infiltration, leaving behind less soluble
minerals.
Laterites are mined for iron and sometimes nickel.
Mineral Deposits
N. Lindsley-Griffin, 1999
Iron ore, Australia
22. Residual mineral
deposits
Bauxite is the main
source of aluminum
ore - found in
laterites formed in
tropical climates.
Mineral Deposits
N. Lindsley-Griffin, 1999
Bauxite (aluminum ore)
Weipa, Australia
Fig. 16.26, p. 499