Intrusive igneous rocks
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This document describes different types of intrusive igneous rocks based on their shape and relationship to existing bedrock structures. It defines dykes as vertically intruded bodies that cut across bedding planes in a discordant manner. Sills are described as intrusions that spread parallel to bedding plans in a concordant way. Laccoliths and lopoliths are both concordant bodies of differing dome or basin shapes that intrude between layers of existing rock.
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Foliation and lineation
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This document discusses various criteria that can be used to determine the top and bottom of sedimentary beds and identify the relative age of rock layers. Some key criteria mentioned include unconformities, fossils, ripple marks, cross-bedding, graded bedding, and the position of cleavage in folded rocks. Law of superposition, which states that older beds are deposited first and therefore located lower in the stratigraphic column, is also discussed. Together, these criteria can be used to deduce the order of deposition and effects of tilting, folding, or other deformation on sedimentary beds.
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Geological action of river or Fluvial processes
The geological action of river is divided chiefly into three parts as Erosion, Transportation and Deposition.
Erosion: River erosion is mainly due to mechanical breaking down of rock fragment. The chemical action of
rivers is minimal. A wide variety of processes are involved in river erosion as follows;
a. Hydraulic action: It is the process of mechanical loosening or removal of the material by the action of the water
alone. The effectiveness of hydraulic action of a river is depends on gradient, velocity of the stream, width, depth
and shape of the channel and discharge.
b. Abrasion: The process of wearing-away of bed rock surfaces by mechanical processes such as rubbing, cutting,
scratching, grinding and polishing etc. is known as abrasion.
c. Attrition: The process of mechanical wearing and tearing of the transported rock fragments into smaller fragments
due to mutual impact and collision.
d. Cavitation: Highly turbulent rivers in rocky channels erode their beds by hydraulic plucking, in which pieces of
bed rocks are lifted out by strong eddies spiraling up around vertical axes. This sucking out of the rock pieces
produces cavities or depressions within the rock. This type of process is called cavitation.
e. Corrosion: The chemical processes of rock erosion by river water are known as corrosion or solution.
Important erosional features:
a. Potholes: These are cylindrical or bowl-like depressions in the rocky beds of streams, which are excavated in the
floors of the streams by extensive, localized abrasion. These are commonly found in softer bedrocks.
b. Water fall: These are defined as magnificent jumps made by stream or river water at certain specific parts of their
course where there is a sudden and considerable drop in the gradient of the channel.
c. River valleys: The river channel carved out by the flow of running water is commonly known as a river valley.
d. Gorges or canyons: During the river erosion, down cutting of its cannel gives rise to a deep narrow valley with
vertical or steep walls. Such a valley is termed as a gorge or canyons.
e. Escarpments: These are erosional land forms produces by rivers in regions composed of alternating beds of hard
and soft rocks. During river erosion soft rocks erode much faster than hard rocks, leaving behind steep slopes on
one side and a gentle slope on the other. The steep slope side is known as the escarpment.
Hog’s back: This is a sharp ridge like structure with high angle sides on two sides formed by harder rocks in an
inclined series of beds.
Mesa and butte: In regions of horizontal strata in which isolated portions of land is capped by a hard, erosion-
resistant bed, the erosional landforms produced will have an isolated flat-topped land area with seep sides,
commonly known as mesa. Isolated masses without flat tops are called buttes.
Transportation: A river is a most powerful agent of transportation. All the material being transported by a
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Plutons (plutonic rock)
Plutons are large masses of igneous rock that form deep underground from slowly cooling magma. They include batholiths, which are large granite formations, as well as dikes, sills, laccoliths, and lopoliths. Batholiths form from magma forcing its way into the crust, laccoliths have a flat bottom and domed top parallel to layers, and lopoliths have a depressed center and curved bottom. Sills are sheet intrusions between sedimentary layers, while dikes cut across pre-existing rocks.
Structure of Igneous Rocks
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more contents-www.geolearn.com
Tectonic Processes and Landscapes
The document discusses different types of plate boundaries and associated tectonic landscapes. It provides details on convergent, divergent and transform plate boundaries. Convergent boundaries result in ocean trenches, volcanic mountain ranges or fold mountains depending on the type of crust involved. Divergent boundaries form mid-ocean ridges and new sea floor. Transform boundaries involve lateral movement of plates without creation or destruction of crust.
Forms of igneous rocks
This document discusses different types of intrusive igneous rocks based on their form and texture. It describes various forms such as dykes, sills, laccoliths, batholiths etc. based on their geometry and relationship to surrounding rocks. It also explains textures of igneous rocks based on grain size, crystallinity and crystal shape. Phaneric and aphanitic textures related to slow and fast cooling of magma respectively are discussed along with porphyritic texture showing mixture of large and small grains.
Igneous structure and genesis (structural geology)
This presentation summarizes igneous rock structures formed from the cooling and solidification of magma. It describes both intrusive and extrusive igneous rock structures. Intrusive structures include concordant structures like laccoliths, lopoliths, sills, and discordant structures like batholiths, stocks, dikes, and volcanic necks. Extrusive structures include primary structures like pillow structures, lava flow structures, vesicular structures, and columnar structures. The presentation provides examples and diagrams to illustrate different igneous rock formations and the geological processes that create their characteristic shapes and features.
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Volcanoes form along tectonic plate boundaries where one plate subducts under another. Most volcanoes occur along the Ring of Fire in the Pacific Ocean area where many tectonic plates meet. When plates collide or one slides under another, pressure and heat cause magma to form underground. This magma can then push through the Earth's crust in places along the plate boundaries to erupt as volcanoes. The Ring of Fire sees frequent volcanic activity because it has many locations where plates are subducting or sliding past one another, generating magma and fueling volcanoes over long chains and arcs around the Pacific Ocean margin.
Mountain building1
Mountain building occurs through various deformation processes depending on the forces involved. Folds form when flat rock layers are bent under compressional stress, creating structures like anticlines and synclines. Faults form when rocks fracture under tensional or compressional stresses, creating features like normal faults and thrust faults. Mountains are classified by the dominant deformation processes, such as folded mountains formed by folding and fault-block mountains formed by uplift along normal faults. Mountain building occurs at convergent plate boundaries through processes like subduction, which forms volcanic island arcs and deformed continental crust.
PLATE TECTONICS_PPT.ppt
The document discusses plate tectonics and the three main types of plate boundaries:
1) Divergent boundaries occur where plates move apart, causing seafloor spreading and the formation of mid-ocean ridges and rift valleys.
2) Convergent boundaries occur where plates collide, resulting in subduction zones, volcanoes, and mountain building from folding and thrusting.
3) Transform boundaries occur where plates slide past each other, causing earthquakes along strike-slip faults like the San Andreas Fault.
Engg geology
IGNEOUS ROCKS AND THEIR PROPERTIES, USES AND DIFFERENT VARITIES OF VOLCANIC INTRUSIONS , MEGASCOPIC PROPERTIES OF VARIOUS IGNEOUS ROCKS
PROPERTIES AND USES OF IGNEOUS ROCKS
CHARECTERSTICS OF IGNEOUS ROCKS WITH FIGURES
Geological Structures
Geological structures form in the Earth's crust due to geological causes. There are many types of structures including folds, faults, and joints. Folds form when rock layers bend under stress rather than breaking. Common fold types include anticlines, synclines, domes, and basins. Faults form when rock layers fracture and move relative to each other, and include normal, reverse, and strike-slip faults. Joints are fractures where the rock splits but there is no relative movement, and can form due to processes like cooling, tectonics, and unloading.
Landforms_Change.pptx
The document discusses different types of landforms associated with plate tectonic activity, including forces inside and outside the Earth. It describes fold mountains as formed by the buckling of crust along plate boundaries. Oceanic trenches form deep under the sea at destructive boundaries where one plate subducts below another. Island arcs are chains of volcanic islands formed above subduction zones, where melting of the subducting plate fuels volcanism. Ocean ridges occur at divergent boundaries and are underwater mountain ranges built up by volcanic eruptions along spreading centers.
The shaping of the earth´s relief.ppt
This document summarizes various geological processes that shape the Earth's surface features and landforms. It describes granite shaping processes like tors and boulders, structural shaping forming mesas and buttes, and fluvial shaping creating valleys, bedloads, rapids, and deltas. It also outlines groundwater processes, karst shaping forming speleothems and sinkholes, coastal shaping of beaches and tombolos, glacial shaping cutting valleys and depositing moraines, and wind shaping of desert dunes and aeolian landforms. The document covers the key geological forces that sculpt the Earth's diverse reliefs.
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Igneous structure and genesis (structural geology)
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Intrusive igneous rocks
- 1. INTRUSIVE IGNEOUS ROCKS -Forms when megma intrudes in to bedrock and slowly cools
- 2. DYKES- These cut the bedding of rocks vertically, hence discordant in nature SILLS- These Spreads parallel to the bedding planes of the rocks , concordant in nature.
- 3. LACCOLITHS: It is a concordant body, with flat bottom and convex upward. It is dome shaped LOPOLITHS : These are basin or saucer-shaped concordant bodies with top nearly flat and convex bottom LOPOLITHS LACCOLITHS
- 4. PATHOLITHS- These are concordant bodies that occurs along the crests and troughs of the folded sedimentary strata. BATHOLITHS: These are the largest kind of plutons, irregular in shape and occupies large area.
- 5. NECK- It is cylindrical conduit that fed magma upward to a volcanic vent or it is a conduit of the ancient volcano. BYSAMILITHS- these are more or less vertical cylindrical bodies that crosscut (discordant) adjacent sediments and are bounded by steep faults.
- 6. THANK YOU