signal transduction
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1. The document outlines different types of cellular receptors including cell surface receptors like G protein-coupled receptors and tyrosine kinase receptors, as well as intracellular receptors. 2. It provides examples of hormone signaling pathways, noting that hormones activate receptors which then trigger intracellular second messenger systems like cAMP, calcium, or phosphorylation to produce cellular effects. 3. The mechanism of insulin signaling is described as an example of receptor tyrosine kinase activation, showing how insulin binding leads to phosphorylation of intracellular targets and downstream effects on processes like glucose uptake and fat/protein synthesis.
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Mechanism of steroid hormone action
Steroid hormones are lipid-soluble chemical messengers derived from cholesterol that transport signals between cells. They are synthesized and immediately released near their target cells. Since they are lipid-soluble, steroid hormones diffuse freely into cells and are carried in the bloodstream bound to transport proteins. Within target cells, steroid hormones bind to intracellular receptors that act as transcription factors to increase or decrease the expression of specific genes and thereby influence various physiological processes like carbohydrate regulation, mineral balance, and reproductive functions.
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1) Hormonal receptors can be either cell surface receptors located on the cell membrane or nuclear receptors located within the cell nucleus.
2) Cell surface receptors transmit signals through G protein-coupled receptor pathways that activate secondary messengers like cAMP or calcium. Nuclear receptors directly bind to DNA as transcription factors after entering the nucleus.
3) Examples of hormones that act through different receptor pathways include insulin which acts through tyrosine kinase receptors, steroid hormones like estrogen which act through nuclear receptors, and catecholamines which act through G protein-coupled cell surface receptors.
Mechanism of action of hormones
Hormones act by binding to specific receptors on target cells. This causes intracellular signaling through second messenger systems. There are three main types of hormone receptors: ion channel-linked receptors which open ion channels, G-protein linked receptors which activate intracellular enzymes through G proteins, and enzyme-linked receptors which have enzymatic activity within the cell. Major second messenger systems include cyclic AMP produced by adenylyl cyclase, phospholipids, and calcium. Steroid and thyroid hormones enter cells and activate gene transcription by binding hormone response elements in DNA. The key steps in hormone signaling are the external hormone, cell membrane receptor, intracellular transducer, amplifier, second messenger, effectors, and cellular response.
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Oxytocin and vasopressin are peptide hormones produced in the hypothalamus and released from the posterior pituitary gland. Oxytocin regulates milk release and uterine contractions during labor, while vasopressin regulates water balance. Both hormones have similar structures but different physiological roles. Oxytocin is involved in romantic attachment, sexual response, social behaviors, and wound healing by reducing anxiety and inflammation. Vasopressin regulates water reabsorption in the kidneys to maintain fluid homeostasis and also mediates blood pressure responses. Diseases related to these hormones include diabetes insipidus and syndrome of inappropriate vasopressin secretion.
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Receptor molecules have three domains: an extracellular ligand-binding domain, a transmembrane domain, and a cytoplasmic domain. G-protein coupled receptors have seven transmembrane alpha helices and activate intracellular signaling pathways by coupling to heterotrimeric G proteins. When a ligand binds to the receptor, it causes a G protein's alpha subunit to exchange GDP for GTP and dissociate from the beta-gamma subunits to activate downstream effector molecules like adenylyl cyclase or phospholipase C. These effectors generate second messengers such as cAMP or IP3/DAG to amplify the signal and regulate cellular processes.
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Protein sorting and targeting
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The mode of protein transport depends chiefly on the location in the cell cytoplasm of the polysomes involved in protein synthesis.
There are two modes of protein sorting:-
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2) Post - translational Transportation.
Membrane proteins
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GENERAL MECHANISM OF PEPTIDE AND STEROID HORMONE ACTION.pdf
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Cellular signal transduction involves signaling molecules activating receptors on target cells to initiate intracellular responses. There are various types of signaling molecules including proteins/peptides, amino acid/fatty acid derivatives, and steroids. These molecules bind to membrane receptors and induce intracellular second messengers like cAMP, IP3, Ca2+ that activate pathways culminating in altered gene expression, metabolism, or other biological effects. The document provides details on different receptor types, intracellular signaling pathways, and examples of signaling molecules that activate them.
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Cellular signal transduction pathways under abiotic stress
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Cell Signalling
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Cell signaling
Cells communicate through signaling molecules that are detected by receptors on other cells. Signals are transmitted across the cell membrane by signal transduction pathways and cause changes in cell function. Signals may target nearby (paracrine), distant (endocrine), or adjacent (juxtacrine) cells. Ion channels in the cell membrane are important for signal transduction and are classified by their method of gating, such as ligand-gated channels that open in response to neurotransmitters.
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Chemical Messengers cAMP and cGMP
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Slideshare second messengers aj
1. Second messengers are small intracellular molecules that transmit signals within cells after extracellular signaling molecules (hormones or neurotransmitters) bind to cell surface receptors.
2. There are three main types of second messenger systems: cyclic AMP (cAMP), cyclic GMP (cGMP), and inositol trisphosphate (IP3)/diacylglycerol (DAG). These systems activate protein kinases or trigger the release of calcium ions to produce a physiological response.
3. Second messengers amplify and diversify extracellular signals, allowing for precise regulation of multiple cellular processes. Their roles are important for understanding cell signaling, disease mechanisms, and potential drug targets.
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Cell Signaling
Cell signaling involves chemical signals binding to cell surface receptors and activating intracellular signal transduction pathways. There are two main ways signals work: by changing the activity of existing proteins or by changing the amount of proteins in the cell. Common types of signals include hormones, growth factors, and neurotransmitters. Signal transduction involves second messengers such as cAMP and IP3 that activate downstream effector proteins like protein kinases. G-protein coupled receptors are a major class of receptors that activate intracellular signaling pathways.
Cell signalling
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RIN4 is a small A. thaliana protein localized to the plasma membrane that acts as a negative regulator of plant immunity responses. It interacts with the resistance proteins RPM1 and RPS2 and is targeted by several Pseudomonas syringae effectors like AvrB, AvrRpm1, and AvrRpt2. Current models suggest RIN4 may serve as a decoy to mimic the unknown real targets of these effectors and compete for binding, activating RPM1/RPS2-mediated immunity when effectors modify RIN4. RIN4 also regulates stomatal closure during infection and the evolution of this RIN4-mediated effector-triggered susceptibility system.
Types of signaling
This document discusses different types of cell signaling: autocrine, paracrine, and endocrine. Autocrine signaling involves cells responding to substances they release, like tumor cells promoting their own growth. Paracrine signaling involves local signaling between nearby cells, like neurotransmitters. Endocrine signaling involves hormones carried by the bloodstream to distant target cells, like epinephrine released from the adrenal glands acting on liver and muscle cells to increase blood glucose and energy during the fight-or-flight response. Examples of each type are provided along with brief histories of cell signaling research.
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Hormone mechanism of action
Hormones act through two main mechanisms: binding to intracellular receptors or cell surface receptors linked to intracellular messengers. Steroid hormones like estrogen bind to nuclear receptors to influence gene expression, while tropic hormones activate cell membrane receptors coupled to messengers like cAMP or IP3/DAG. These messengers then activate intracellular kinase pathways to induce cellular responses.
Pharmacodynamics
This document discusses pharmacodynamics and the different types of protein targets that drugs can bind to in order to produce pharmacological responses, including receptors, enzymes, carriers, and ion channels. It focuses on drug receptors, describing them as target molecules that drugs must bind to in order to elicit effects. There are four main types of receptors: ligand-gated ion channels, G protein-coupled receptors, kinase-linked receptors, and nuclear receptors. The document provides details on the molecular structures and mechanisms of ligand-gated ion channels and G protein-coupled receptors.
overview signaltransductionpathways
1. The document discusses cell signaling and communication between cells through signaling molecules. It describes different types of cell signaling including paracrine, autocrine, and synaptic signaling.
2. Key components of cell signaling pathways are described such as receptors, ligands, second messengers, and protein phosphorylation. Different classes of receptors - intracellular receptors, ligand-gated ion channels, G-protein coupled receptors, and receptor tyrosine kinases - are summarized.
3. Common second messengers like calcium ions, cyclic AMP, and inositol phosphates are explained. The roles and mechanisms of hormone receptors and different types of ligands are also outlined.
Pharmaco dyanamics studies
This document discusses pharmacodynamics, which is the study of how drugs act on the body and produce their effects. It describes several key concepts:
1. Drugs act by interacting with receptors or enzymes in tissues. Common sites of action include receptors, ion channels, and enzymes.
2. The mechanism of action describes how a drug modifies physiological or biochemical functions at the molecular level, such as by activating or inhibiting receptors.
3. Pharmacological effects refer to the physiological or biochemical changes caused by drugs, including their therapeutic and toxic effects. Drugs can stimulate or depress functions and may have agonistic, antagonistic, or other complex effects.
4. Several signaling pathways are involved in how receptors
Pharmacodynamics
Pharmacodynamics describes how drug molecules produce pharmacological responses by exerting chemical influences on cellular constituents like receptors, enzymes, transporters, and ion channels. There are four main types of receptors that drugs can bind to: ligand-gated ion channels, G protein-coupled receptors, kinase-linked receptors, and nuclear receptors. G protein-coupled receptors are the largest family and mediate many hormone and neurotransmitter effects via downstream signaling pathways involving cyclic AMP, calcium, and other intracellular messengers. Drug-receptor binding causes conformational changes that can activate or inhibit the receptor and downstream signaling cascades.
Cell surface and intrcellular receptors
Cell surface and intracellular receptors play important roles in signal transduction. There are two main types of receptors - internal receptors located in the cytoplasm that directly influence gene expression, and cell surface receptors that span the plasma membrane and convert extracellular signals into intracellular signals. Cell surface receptors include enzyme-linked receptors with intracellular enzyme domains, ion channel-linked receptors that open channels for ion flow, and G-protein-linked receptors that activate intracellular G-proteins to transmit signals. Defects in cell surface receptors can cause diseases.
Endocrine Physiology introduction.pptx
The endocrine system coordinates body functions through chemical messenger systems including hormones. Hormones can act locally as neurotransmitters or at distant sites as endocrine hormones. They are classified based on their site of secretion and target cells. The pituitary gland regulates other endocrine glands and has anterior and posterior lobes that secrete hormones like growth hormone, ACTH, TSH, and oxytocin. Hormones act through cell surface receptors and intracellular signaling to regulate processes like growth, metabolism, and reproduction.
Endo 2 kevin
Hormones act on target cells through receptor proteins and second messenger systems. Lipid-soluble hormones enter cells and activate nuclear receptors to regulate gene transcription. Water-soluble hormones bind membrane receptors and use second messengers like cAMP or Ca2+ to trigger intracellular responses. Insulin and growth factors activate tyrosine kinase receptors to phosphorylate proteins and regulate metabolism.
Signal Transduction.ppsx
This chapter explains about detail mechanism of signal transduction in a cell and shows the possible targets of pharmacological agents.
SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION (1).pptx
Signal transduction involves the conversion of one type of signal received by a cell into another type of intracellular signal to trigger an appropriate response. It is a multi-step process involving reception of an extracellular signal by a cell surface receptor, transduction of the signal through the cell via second messengers, and cellular response. Common second messengers include cyclic AMP and calcium ions which help amplify and coordinate the cellular response through phosphorylation cascades and activation of protein kinases. G protein-coupled receptors and receptor tyrosine kinases are major classes of receptors that initiate intracellular signaling cascades upon ligand binding.
cell signalling & communication of cells.ppt
The presentation illustrates the basic modes of cell signalling pathways for undergraduate students. It mentions variety of examples of cell signalling with different receptors, ligands and target molecules
Receptors
Receptors are proteins that bind to specific molecules called ligands. There are two main types of receptors: intracellular receptors located inside the cell, and cell surface receptors located in the plasma membrane. Receptor function involves binding of a ligand, which causes a conformational change in the receptor and transmission of a signal. Some important receptor types include ligand-gated ion channels, G protein-coupled receptors, and enzyme-linked receptors such as receptor tyrosine kinases. Mutations in receptor tyrosine kinases can cause developmental disorders and cancers due to effects on cell growth, differentiation, and apoptosis.
Pharmacodynamics
This document discusses pharmacodynamics and drug targets. It explains that pharmacodynamics studies how drugs work in living organisms by examining their biochemical and physiological effects. Quantitative studies allow comparison of drug concentration and effect, while qualitative studies investigate mechanisms of drug action. The document then discusses different types of drug targets, including enzymes, carrier proteins, ion channels, and receptors. It provides examples of drugs that target each of these and how they produce their effects. The document emphasizes that understanding drug targets allows for more specific and effective drugs with fewer side effects.
Pharmacodynamic
Basic concepts of pharmacology
Along with pharmacodynamic parameter and types of drug action
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Cell signalling
This document summarizes cell signaling and signal transduction. It discusses extracellular signaling molecules that transmit information to target cells via paracrine, autocrine, endocrine, or direct contact signaling. Signal transduction involves reception of signals by cell surface or intracellular receptors, transduction through a signal cascade, and cellular response. Secondary messengers like cAMP, cGMP, IP3, DAG, and calcium ions amplify and carry intracellular signals.
A&pi ichapter17
The document provides an overview of the endocrine system, including:
1. The endocrine system uses chemical messengers called hormones to allow cells to communicate and regulate activities throughout the body. Hormones are secreted into the bloodstream and travel to target tissues.
2. The endocrine system consists of endocrine glands and specialized cells that secrete minute amounts of hormones. Hormones travel via the bloodstream to specific target sites where they elicit effects.
3. The endocrine and nervous systems both regulate homeostasis but differ in their modes of transport (hormones travel via bloodstream vs neurotransmitters acting locally) and speeds/durations of response.
Signalling pathways in tumorigenesis
1. Signal transduction is the process by which cells convert extracellular signals into intracellular responses. Growth factors and other ligands bind to cell surface receptors to activate intracellular signaling pathways that regulate processes like cell growth, survival and gene expression.
2. Deregulated growth factor signaling can contribute to tumorigenesis by inducing autocrine or paracrine proliferative signaling or by rendering cells hyperresponsive to growth factors. Common growth factors involved include EGF, HGF, PDGF, VEGF and FGF.
3. Growth factor receptors activate downstream signaling cascades like the MAPK and PI3K-AKT pathways through kinase activity. This leads to the activation of transcription factors that modulate gene expression and drive processes like
Trans membrane signaling
Transmembrane signaling involves extracellular signals binding to membrane receptors and generating intracellular signals. There are four main types of target cells: receptors, ion channels, carrier molecules, and enzymes. Receptors are the most commonly used target. There are four types of receptors: ligand-gated ion channels, G-protein coupled receptors, kinase receptors, and nuclear receptors. Ligand-gated ion channels open to allow ion passage in response to ligand binding. G-protein coupled receptors activate intracellular signaling pathways via dissociation of their G-protein subunits. Kinase receptors activate intracellular effector proteins through phosphorylation. Nuclear receptors directly regulate gene transcription after ligand binding causes dissociation of an inhibitory complex.
Molecular interaction, Regulation and Signalling receptors and vesicles
1. Overview of Extracellular signalling
2. Signalling molecules operate over various distance in animals
3.Endocrine Signalling
4.Paracrine Signalling
5.Autocrine Signalling
6. Signalling by Plasma membrane attached proteins
7.Receptors
8 Properties of receptors
9.Cell surface receptors belong to four major classes
10.Signal transduction Mechanism
11. Second messenger
12. Contraction of skeletal Muscle cells mechanism
Biochemical Aspects of Hormones
Slides prepared MBBS Biochemistry lectures. Includes description of hormone signaling, hormone actions, detailed description of insulin and diabetes mellitus, metabolic syndrome, thyroid hormones, calcium and phosphate homeostasis, vitamin D and PTH.
Prepared in Nov 2015
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Simple lipids
This document discusses simple lipids, including their classification and properties. It notes that simple lipids include fats, oils, and waxes, which are esters of fatty acids with alcohols like glycerol or high molecular weight alcohols. Key points covered include:
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lipid clinical importance sdk 2013
Compound lipids contain additional substances like phosphorus, carbohydrates or proteins in addition to fatty acids and alcohols. Phospholipids are important compound lipids that contain phosphoric acid and make up cell membranes. They are classified as glycerophospholipids containing glycerol or sphingophospholipids containing sphingosine. Glycolipids contain carbohydrate residues and sphingosine. Lipoproteins combine lipids and proteins and transport lipids in the bloodstream, classified by density.
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Post-translational modifications (PTMs) are key mechanisms that increase proteomic diversity and regulate cellular activity. PTMs such as phosphorylation, methylation, acetylation, and ubiquitination occur through the addition of functional groups to specific amino acids on a protein by enzymes. These modifications can regulate protein activity, stability, localization, and degradation. Proteins are targeted to different intracellular compartments through sorting signals and transport mechanisms like gated transport, transmembrane transport, and vesicular transport.
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The document discusses transcription and protein synthesis. It explains that DNA contains the genetic code to make proteins, and transcription is the process of copying this code from DNA to mRNA in the nucleus. Translation then uses the mRNA code to assemble amino acids in the cytoplasm. The key steps are: 1) DNA unzips and mRNA nucleotides pair with the DNA template, 2) mRNA exits the nucleus where ribosomes read its code 3) Transfer RNA delivers amino acids to the ribosome based on mRNA codons to form a polypeptide chain. Mutations can occur during transcription or DNA replication and result in substitutions, deletions or insertions of genetic code.
protein translation
The document summarizes the process of protein translation, which involves messenger RNA (mRNA) being used as a template to produce a polypeptide chain through the joining of amino acids. Key steps include transcription producing mRNA from DNA, mRNA binding to ribosomes in the cytoplasm, transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules matching codons on mRNA to deliver corresponding amino acids, and the growth of the polypeptide chain through the formation of peptide bonds until a stop codon is reached, terminating translation. The genetic code and roles of various RNAs like rRNA and tRNA in facilitating translation are also outlined.
the cell
This document provides an introduction to molecular biology. It discusses the study of biology at the molecular level, including nucleic acids like DNA and RNA, as well as proteins. Key topics covered include the structures, properties, synthesis and functions of these biomolecules. The central dogma of molecular biology and various applications and tools used in molecular studies are also summarized, such as DNA cloning, PCR, DNA sequencing, and databases. Important events in the history of molecular biology are highlighted. The document concludes with sections on cell theory and the structures and functions of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
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gene regulation sdk 2013
Gene expression in eukaryotes is controlled at multiple levels, including chromatin structure, transcription, RNA processing, and translation. Chromatin structure determines if genes are transcriptionally active or inactive. Transcription is regulated by the interaction of promoters, transcription factors, and enhancers. RNA processing controls splicing and transport of mRNA. Finally, translation and post-translational modifications further regulate gene expression. Overall, eukaryotic gene expression is tightly controlled through complex mechanisms at the chromatin, transcription, RNA, translation, and protein levels.
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signal transduction
- 2. Lecture outline • Introduction to Signal transduction pathways • Cellular receptors – Cell surface receptors • G protein coupled receptors • Tyrosine kinase receptors – Intracellular Receptors
- 3. Control systems of the body Human body has thousands of control systems in it Cells Genetic control Tissues Tissue factors Organs/ Systems e.g. Pancreas (blood glucose sensing and release of Insulin) Nervous System Hormones Complex, interconnected control mechanisms
- 5. What are hormones • Endocrine hormones are secreted by specialized glands/tissues • Carried by blood to cells throughout the body • Some have general effects, while others only affect specific target organs • Hormonal effects on target cells depend upon presence of specific receptors
- 6. General Mechanism of Hormone Action • Specificity of Hormone and Target Tissue interaction is dependent upon the location of cellular receptors: • Plasma membrane of cells (surface receptors) • In the cytosol or nucleus (intra-cellular receptors)
- 7. Hormone Receptors • The interaction is swift and reversible, allowing rapid onset and termination of hormone action • Receptor affinity for hormone must be high as hormones circulate in pico- or nanomole concentrations • Receptors are also specific
- 8. What are Receptors? • Usually proteins or glycoproteins • Ligand-receptor interaction brings about conformational change in the receptor leading to activation of intracellular mediators (“second messengers”) • Second messengers, would then activate further molecules in the cell…
- 9. Two major types of Receptors
- 14. GDP GTP GTP ATP cAMP Activation of downstream target molecules Intracellular effects G-proteins could be stimulatory (Gs) or inhibitory (Gi) Each hormone receptor interacts specifically with either Gs or Gi Gs Receptor Adenylyl cyclase Ligand
- 15. cAMP • Cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) is a nucleotide generated from ATP through the action of the enzyme adenylate cyclase • The intracellular concentration of cAMP is increased or decreased by activation of a variety of receptors • cAMP activates a large number of downstream targets
- 16. cAMP • Protein kinase A is normally in a catalytically- inactive state, but becomes active when it binds to cAMP • Upon activation, protein kinase A phosphorylates a number of other proteins • Levels of cAMP decrease due to destruction by cAMP-phosphodiesterase and the inactivation of adenylate cyclase
- 17. RTK • The receptors for several protein hormones are themselves protein kinases which are switched on by binding of hormone. The kinase activity associated with such receptors results in phosphorylation of tyrosine residues on other proteins • Insulin is an example of a hormone whose receptor is a tyrosine kinase
- 18. RTK • The hormone binds to domains exposed on the cell's surface, resulting in a conformational change that activates kinase domains located in the cytoplasmic regions of the receptor • In many cases, the receptor phosphorylates itself as part of the kinase activation process • The activated receptor phosphorylates a variety of intracellular targets, many of which are enzymes
- 19. 2nd Messenger Systems Second Messenger Examples of Hormones Cyclic AMP Epinephrine and norepinephrine, glucagon, LH, FSH, TSH, calcitonin, PTH, ADH Receptor Tyrosine Kinase Insulin, GH, PRL, Oxytocin, erythropoietin, several growth factors Calcium and / or Phosphoinositides Epinephrine and norepinephrine, angiotensin II, ADH, GRH, TRH Cyclic GMP ANP, nitric oxide
- 20. Insulin-RTK Receptor (an example)
- 21. Insulin • Insulin is a hormone associated with energy abundance • In the case of excess carbohydrates, it causes them to be stored as glycogen mainly in the liver and muscles • Excess carbohydrates that cannot be stored as glycogen are converted into fats and stored in the adipose tissue • In the case of proteins, insulin has a direct effect in promoting amino acid uptake by cells
- 22. Insulin • To initiate its effects on target cells, insulin first binds with and activates a membrane receptor protein (RTK)
- 23. PP Insulin Insulin Receptor Transcription of Target Genes β β α α-S-S- S-S- -S-S Protein Synthesis Fat Synthesis Glucose Synthesis Glucose Transport GLUT Glucose IRS (Insulin Receptor Substrates) Phosphorylation of Enzymes
- 25. Intracellular Receptors • Steroid and thyroid hormone receptors are members of a large group ("superfamily") of transcription factors. All of these receptors are composed of a single polypeptide chain that has three distinct domains
- 26. Intracellular Receptors • The amino-terminus: this region is involved in activating or stimulating transcription by interacting with other components of the transcriptional machinery. • DNA binding domain: Amino acids in this region are responsible for binding of the receptor to specific sequences of DNA. • The carboxy-terminus or ligand-binding domain: This is the region that binds hormone
- 27. Hormone-Receptor Binding and Interactions with DNA • Being lipids, steroid hormones enter the cell by simple diffusion across the plasma membrane. Thyroid hormones enter the cell by facilitated diffusion • The receptors exist either in the cytoplasm or nucleus, which is where they meet the hormone. When hormone binds to receptor, a characteristic series of events occurs…
- 29. • Receptor activation is the term used to describe conformational changes in the receptor induced by binding hormone. The major consequence of activation is that the receptor becomes competent to bind DNA • Activated receptors bind to hormone response elements, which are short specific sequences of DNA which are located in promoters of hormone-responsive genes • Most commonly, receptor binding to DNA stimulates transcription. The hormone-receptor complex thus functions as a transcription factor
- 30. In Summary • Receptors are specific proteins which can be activated by various factors (ligands) • Once activated, the receptors activate further molecules leading to a chain of events (signaling cascade) • The effects could be immediate (like changes in membrane permeability to certain ions) or long- term (like transcription of genes)