Carbohydrates are an essential organic compound composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They serve as an important energy source and structural component in organisms. There are several types of carbohydrates including monosaccharides (glucose, fructose), disaccharides (sucrose, lactose, maltose), and polysaccharides (starch, cellulose, glycogen). Carbohydrates can form isomers and undergo various reactions like oxidation. They play critical roles in energy storage, membrane structure, and structural support in living things.
A comprehensive presentation on carbohydrate chemistry with subtitles including definition,physical properties ,classification,glycosidic bonds in disaccharides ,comparision of disaccharides ,comparison of starch ,cellulose ,glycogen,,structure & functions of dextran,agar,structure & functions of heteropolysaccharides,,mucopolysaccharidoses,reactions of monosaccharides -oxidation,reduction,osazone formation,dehydration,derivatives of monosaccharides -aminosugars ,sugar alcohols,optical activity,,stereoisomers, epimers ,mutarotation,inversion test for sucrose ,functions of glycoproteins,glycosides ,alpha and beta D glucose ,pyranose and funarose ring structures of glucose and fructose
A comprehensive presentation on carbohydrate chemistry with subtitles including definition,physical properties ,classification,glycosidic bonds in disaccharides ,comparision of disaccharides ,comparison of starch ,cellulose ,glycogen,,structure & functions of dextran,agar,structure & functions of heteropolysaccharides,,mucopolysaccharidoses,reactions of monosaccharides -oxidation,reduction,osazone formation,dehydration,derivatives of monosaccharides -aminosugars ,sugar alcohols,optical activity,,stereoisomers, epimers ,mutarotation,inversion test for sucrose ,functions of glycoproteins,glycosides ,alpha and beta D glucose ,pyranose and funarose ring structures of glucose and fructose
Chemistry of carbohydrates polysaccharides part 3 B heteroglycansRavi Kiran
Chemistry of carbohydrates polysaccharides part 3 B heteroglycans. To teach Ist year medical students.
Chemistry of carbohydrates Part-1 Monosaccharides
Part-2 Disaccharides
Part -3A Homoglycans
Part-3B Heteroglycans
Carbohydrates are the sugars, starches and fibers found in fruits, grains, vegetables and milk products. Though often maligned in trendy diets, carbohydrates — one of the basic food groups — are important to a healthy life.
Chemistry of carbohydrates polysaccharides part 3 B heteroglycansRavi Kiran
Chemistry of carbohydrates polysaccharides part 3 B heteroglycans. To teach Ist year medical students.
Chemistry of carbohydrates Part-1 Monosaccharides
Part-2 Disaccharides
Part -3A Homoglycans
Part-3B Heteroglycans
Carbohydrates are the sugars, starches and fibers found in fruits, grains, vegetables and milk products. Though often maligned in trendy diets, carbohydrates — one of the basic food groups — are important to a healthy life.
• CHO : CHO may be defined as polyhydroxy aldehyde,
ketones or acids and their derivatives.
• CHO : Based on their digestibility & solubility , the CHO
divided in to two parts
– Soluble CHO / easily digest - NFE ( Sugar, Starch,
Hemicelluloses)
– Insoluble CHO / less digest in non ruminant but digestible
in ruminant (Crude fibre, cellulose, Ligniin)
• Carbohydrates are neutral chemical compounds
containing the elements carbon, hydrogen & oxygen &
have empirical formula (CH2O)n where n is three or
more.
CARBOHYDRATES
Function of carbohydrates
• Important source of energy
• As important food reserves
• In the storage of Liver and muscle of the liver
Glycogen
Liver glycogen muscle glycogen
• In the seed →as starc
• Transfer of genetic characteristic of the cell
• Carbohydrates make the matrix of connective
tissue eg. Hyaluronic acid
• They make structural part of cartilage, bone
and tendons eg. Chondroitin sulphate
• Oxidation of protein & fat as they are
important component.
• Essential component of milk as lactose.
• It helpful in absorption of calcium &
phosphorus in younger animals.
• They help in peristaltic movement of food.
Classification of carbohydrates:
17
In nutrition, carbohydrates are classied into five groups:
• (1) monosaccharides (also known as simple sugars);
• (2) disaccharides (containing 2 monosaccharide units);
• (3) oligosaccharides (containing 3–10 monosaccharide
units);
• (4) polysaccharides (containing more than 10
monosaccharide units); and
• (5) conjugated carbohydrates. covalently bound to lipids or
proteins to form glycolipids or glycoproteins, respectively.
Polysaccharides are subdivided into
– Homopolysaccharides (containing only one type of
monosaccharide) and
– Heteropolysaccharides (containing more than one type of
monosaccharide).
Classification of Carbohydrates
• Monosaccharides
– Trioses (C3H6O3) Glyceraldehyde and dihydroxyacetone
– Tetroses (C4H8O4) Erythrose
– Pentoses (C5H10O5) Aarabinase, xylose, xylulose, ribose,
ribulose, and 5-deoxyribose
– Hexoses (C6H12O6) Glucose, fructose, galactose, and mannose
– Heptoses (C7H14O7) Sedoheptulose, mannoheptulose (in
avocados), and -glycero--manno-heptose
• Disaccharides Sucrose (-α-glucose and -α-fructose), lactose
(milk sugar; -α-glucose and -α-galactose), maltose, isomaltose,
cellobiose, α,α-trehalose, α,β-trehalose, and β,β-trehalose)
• Oligosaccharides
– Trisaccharides, Rafnose, kestose, maltotriose (three units of glucose),
planteose, and melezitose (in sweet exudates of many trees and in
insects), and panose (synthesized by microbes)
– Tetrasaccharides Stachyose and lychnose (1-α-galactosyl-rafnose)
18
• Polysaccharides
– Homoglycans
• Pentosans (C5H8O4)n, for example, arabans and xylans
• Hexosans (C6H12O6)n, for example, starch, cellulose,
mannans, levans, and glycogen
– Heteroglycansd Hemicelluloses, pectins, exudate
gums, seaweed polysaccharides (algin, carrageenans,
agar, aminopolysaccharides [e.g., chondroitin and
hyal
Carbohydrates : carbohydrates are polyhydroxy aldehyde or ketones, or substances that yield such compounds on hydrolysis. A carbohydrate is a biological molecule consisting of Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), and Oxygen (O) atoms, usually with a hydrogen-oxygen atom ratio of 2:1 (as in water); in other words, with the empirical formula (CH2O)n. Simple carbohydrates are also known as "Sugars" or "Saccharides".
Depending upon the composition and complexity, carbohydrates are divided into four groups:
1. Monosaccharides
2. Disaccharides
3. Oligosaccharides
4. Polysaccharides
Monosaccharides: are simplest sugars, or the compounds which possess a free aldehyde (CHO) or ketone (C=O) group and two or more hydroxyl (OH) groups. They are simplest sugars and cannot be hydrolyzed further into smaller units. Examples of monosaccharides include:
1. Glucose
2. Fructose
3. Galactose
Disaccharides: Those sugars which yield two molecules of the same or different molecules of monosaccharides on hydrolysis are called Disaccharides. Three most common disaccharides of biological importance are:
1. Maltose
2. Lactose
3. Sucrose
Oligosaccharides: are compound sugars that yield more than two and less than ten molecules of the same or different monosaccharides on hydrolysis. Depending upon the number of monosaccharides units present in them oligosaccharides can be classified as Trisaccharides, Tetrasaccharides, Pentasaccharides and so on.
Polysaccharides: polysaccharides are polymers containing ten or more monosaccharides units attached together. Polysaccharides are also known as Glycans. Polysaccharides are further classified into:
1. Homopolysaccharides: are also known as homoglycans. Homopolysaccharides are polymer of same monosaccharide units. Example includes:
1. Starch
2. Glycogen
3. Cellulose
4. Inulin
5. Dextrin
6. Dextran
7. Chitin
Heteropolysaccharides: heteropolysaccharides are polysaccharides that contains different types of monosaccharides. Heteropolysaccharides can be classified as: GAG, AGAR, AGAROSE, PECTIN.
Any of a large group of organic compounds occurring in foods and living tissues and including sugars, starch, and cellulose. They contain hydrogen and oxygen in the same ratio as water (2:1) and typically can be broken down to release energy in the animal body.
Chemically, carbohydrates are defined as “optically active polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones or the compounds which produce units of such type on hydrolysis”.
In general, carbohydrates are neutral chemical compounds containing the elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen and have the empirical formula (CH2O)n, where n is 3 or more.
Enterprise Excellence is Inclusive Excellence.pdfKaiNexus
Enterprise excellence and inclusive excellence are closely linked, and real-world challenges have shown that both are essential to the success of any organization. To achieve enterprise excellence, organizations must focus on improving their operations and processes while creating an inclusive environment that engages everyone. In this interactive session, the facilitator will highlight commonly established business practices and how they limit our ability to engage everyone every day. More importantly, though, participants will likely gain increased awareness of what we can do differently to maximize enterprise excellence through deliberate inclusion.
What is Enterprise Excellence?
Enterprise Excellence is a holistic approach that's aimed at achieving world-class performance across all aspects of the organization.
What might I learn?
A way to engage all in creating Inclusive Excellence. Lessons from the US military and their parallels to the story of Harry Potter. How belt systems and CI teams can destroy inclusive practices. How leadership language invites people to the party. There are three things leaders can do to engage everyone every day: maximizing psychological safety to create environments where folks learn, contribute, and challenge the status quo.
Who might benefit? Anyone and everyone leading folks from the shop floor to top floor.
Dr. William Harvey is a seasoned Operations Leader with extensive experience in chemical processing, manufacturing, and operations management. At Michelman, he currently oversees multiple sites, leading teams in strategic planning and coaching/practicing continuous improvement. William is set to start his eighth year of teaching at the University of Cincinnati where he teaches marketing, finance, and management. William holds various certifications in change management, quality, leadership, operational excellence, team building, and DiSC, among others.
Cracking the Workplace Discipline Code Main.pptxWorkforce Group
Cultivating and maintaining discipline within teams is a critical differentiator for successful organisations.
Forward-thinking leaders and business managers understand the impact that discipline has on organisational success. A disciplined workforce operates with clarity, focus, and a shared understanding of expectations, ultimately driving better results, optimising productivity, and facilitating seamless collaboration.
Although discipline is not a one-size-fits-all approach, it can help create a work environment that encourages personal growth and accountability rather than solely relying on punitive measures.
In this deck, you will learn the significance of workplace discipline for organisational success. You’ll also learn
• Four (4) workplace discipline methods you should consider
• The best and most practical approach to implementing workplace discipline.
• Three (3) key tips to maintain a disciplined workplace.
Discover the innovative and creative projects that highlight my journey throu...dylandmeas
Discover the innovative and creative projects that highlight my journey through Full Sail University. Below, you’ll find a collection of my work showcasing my skills and expertise in digital marketing, event planning, and media production.
VAT Registration Outlined In UAE: Benefits and Requirementsuae taxgpt
Vat Registration is a legal obligation for businesses meeting the threshold requirement, helping companies avoid fines and ramifications. Contact now!
https://viralsocialtrends.com/vat-registration-outlined-in-uae/
The world of search engine optimization (SEO) is buzzing with discussions after Google confirmed that around 2,500 leaked internal documents related to its Search feature are indeed authentic. The revelation has sparked significant concerns within the SEO community. The leaked documents were initially reported by SEO experts Rand Fishkin and Mike King, igniting widespread analysis and discourse. For More Info:- https://news.arihantwebtech.com/search-disrupted-googles-leaked-documents-rock-the-seo-world/
B2B payments are rapidly changing. Find out the 5 key questions you need to be asking yourself to be sure you are mastering B2B payments today. Learn more at www.BlueSnap.com.
RMD24 | Retail media: hoe zet je dit in als je geen AH of Unilever bent? Heid...BBPMedia1
Grote partijen zijn al een tijdje onderweg met retail media. Ondertussen worden in dit domein ook de kansen zichtbaar voor andere spelers in de markt. Maar met die kansen ontstaan ook vragen: Zelf retail media worden of erop adverteren? In welke fase van de funnel past het en hoe integreer je het in een mediaplan? Wat is nu precies het verschil met marketplaces en Programmatic ads? In dit half uur beslechten we de dilemma's en krijg je antwoorden op wanneer het voor jou tijd is om de volgende stap te zetten.
At Techbox Square, in Singapore, we're not just creative web designers and developers, we're the driving force behind your brand identity. Contact us today.
[Note: This is a partial preview. To download this presentation, visit:
https://www.oeconsulting.com.sg/training-presentations]
Sustainability has become an increasingly critical topic as the world recognizes the need to protect our planet and its resources for future generations. Sustainability means meeting our current needs without compromising the ability of future generations to meet theirs. It involves long-term planning and consideration of the consequences of our actions. The goal is to create strategies that ensure the long-term viability of People, Planet, and Profit.
Leading companies such as Nike, Toyota, and Siemens are prioritizing sustainable innovation in their business models, setting an example for others to follow. In this Sustainability training presentation, you will learn key concepts, principles, and practices of sustainability applicable across industries. This training aims to create awareness and educate employees, senior executives, consultants, and other key stakeholders, including investors, policymakers, and supply chain partners, on the importance and implementation of sustainability.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Develop a comprehensive understanding of the fundamental principles and concepts that form the foundation of sustainability within corporate environments.
2. Explore the sustainability implementation model, focusing on effective measures and reporting strategies to track and communicate sustainability efforts.
3. Identify and define best practices and critical success factors essential for achieving sustainability goals within organizations.
CONTENTS
1. Introduction and Key Concepts of Sustainability
2. Principles and Practices of Sustainability
3. Measures and Reporting in Sustainability
4. Sustainability Implementation & Best Practices
To download the complete presentation, visit: https://www.oeconsulting.com.sg/training-presentations
"𝑩𝑬𝑮𝑼𝑵 𝑾𝑰𝑻𝑯 𝑻𝑱 𝑰𝑺 𝑯𝑨𝑳𝑭 𝑫𝑶𝑵𝑬"
𝐓𝐉 𝐂𝐨𝐦𝐬 (𝐓𝐉 𝐂𝐨𝐦𝐦𝐮𝐧𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧𝐬) is a professional event agency that includes experts in the event-organizing market in Vietnam, Korea, and ASEAN countries. We provide unlimited types of events from Music concerts, Fan meetings, and Culture festivals to Corporate events, Internal company events, Golf tournaments, MICE events, and Exhibitions.
𝐓𝐉 𝐂𝐨𝐦𝐬 provides unlimited package services including such as Event organizing, Event planning, Event production, Manpower, PR marketing, Design 2D/3D, VIP protocols, Interpreter agency, etc.
Sports events - Golf competitions/billiards competitions/company sports events: dynamic and challenging
⭐ 𝐅𝐞𝐚𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐞𝐝 𝐩𝐫𝐨𝐣𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐬:
➢ 2024 BAEKHYUN [Lonsdaleite] IN HO CHI MINH
➢ SUPER JUNIOR-L.S.S. THE SHOW : Th3ee Guys in HO CHI MINH
➢FreenBecky 1st Fan Meeting in Vietnam
➢CHILDREN ART EXHIBITION 2024: BEYOND BARRIERS
➢ WOW K-Music Festival 2023
➢ Winner [CROSS] Tour in HCM
➢ Super Show 9 in HCM with Super Junior
➢ HCMC - Gyeongsangbuk-do Culture and Tourism Festival
➢ Korean Vietnam Partnership - Fair with LG
➢ Korean President visits Samsung Electronics R&D Center
➢ Vietnam Food Expo with Lotte Wellfood
"𝐄𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐲 𝐞𝐯𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐢𝐬 𝐚 𝐬𝐭𝐨𝐫𝐲, 𝐚 𝐬𝐩𝐞𝐜𝐢𝐚𝐥 𝐣𝐨𝐮𝐫𝐧𝐞𝐲. 𝐖𝐞 𝐚𝐥𝐰𝐚𝐲𝐬 𝐛𝐞𝐥𝐢𝐞𝐯𝐞 𝐭𝐡𝐚𝐭 𝐬𝐡𝐨𝐫𝐭𝐥𝐲 𝐲𝐨𝐮 𝐰𝐢𝐥𝐥 𝐛𝐞 𝐚 𝐩𝐚𝐫𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐨𝐮𝐫 𝐬𝐭𝐨𝐫𝐢𝐞𝐬."
Falcon stands out as a top-tier P2P Invoice Discounting platform in India, bridging esteemed blue-chip companies and eager investors. Our goal is to transform the investment landscape in India by establishing a comprehensive destination for borrowers and investors with diverse profiles and needs, all while minimizing risk. What sets Falcon apart is the elimination of intermediaries such as commercial banks and depository institutions, allowing investors to enjoy higher yields.
Digital Transformation and IT Strategy Toolkit and TemplatesAurelien Domont, MBA
This Digital Transformation and IT Strategy Toolkit was created by ex-McKinsey, Deloitte and BCG Management Consultants, after more than 5,000 hours of work. It is considered the world's best & most comprehensive Digital Transformation and IT Strategy Toolkit. It includes all the Frameworks, Best Practices & Templates required to successfully undertake the Digital Transformation of your organization and define a robust IT Strategy.
Editable Toolkit to help you reuse our content: 700 Powerpoint slides | 35 Excel sheets | 84 minutes of Video training
This PowerPoint presentation is only a small preview of our Toolkits. For more details, visit www.domontconsulting.com
Putting the SPARK into Virtual Training.pptxCynthia Clay
This 60-minute webinar, sponsored by Adobe, was delivered for the Training Mag Network. It explored the five elements of SPARK: Storytelling, Purpose, Action, Relationships, and Kudos. Knowing how to tell a well-structured story is key to building long-term memory. Stating a clear purpose that doesn't take away from the discovery learning process is critical. Ensuring that people move from theory to practical application is imperative. Creating strong social learning is the key to commitment and engagement. Validating and affirming participants' comments is the way to create a positive learning environment.
RMD24 | Debunking the non-endemic revenue myth Marvin Vacquier Droop | First ...BBPMedia1
Marvin neemt je in deze presentatie mee in de voordelen van non-endemic advertising op retail media netwerken. Hij brengt ook de uitdagingen in beeld die de markt op dit moment heeft op het gebied van retail media voor niet-leveranciers.
Retail media wordt gezien als het nieuwe advertising-medium en ook mediabureaus richten massaal retail media-afdelingen op. Merken die niet in de betreffende winkel liggen staan ook nog niet in de rij om op de retail media netwerken te adverteren. Marvin belicht de uitdagingen die er zijn om echt aansluiting te vinden op die markt van non-endemic advertising.
Personal Brand Statement:
As an Army veteran dedicated to lifelong learning, I bring a disciplined, strategic mindset to my pursuits. I am constantly expanding my knowledge to innovate and lead effectively. My journey is driven by a commitment to excellence, and to make a meaningful impact in the world.
2. Objectives
• Define Carbohydrates
• List the biomedical importance of
carbohydrates
• Write down the Empirical formula of
Carbohydrates
• Classify with examples various types of
carbohydrates
• Explain isomerism in carbohydrates
3. Significance of Carbohydrates
• Most abundant organic compound in nature
• A major source of energy from our diet
• Storage form of energy in plants and animals
• Cell membrane component
• Structural component of many organisms
• Composed of the elements C, H and O and
empiric formula is C(H2O)n
• Also called hydrates of carbon OR saccharides,
which means “sugars”
5. Figure 7.1. Examples of monosaccharides found in humans, classified
according to the number of carbons they contain.
6. Isomers and epimers
• Compounds that have same chemical formula but have
different structures = ISOMERS
• e.g., fructose, glucose, mannose, & galactose are all isomers
of each other, having same formula C6H12O6
• If 2 monosacch differ in configuration around only one
specific C atom (with exception of carbonyl C), they are
defined as epimers of each other (of course they are also
isomers) e.g.,
– glucose & galactose are C-4 epimers, their structures
differ only in the position of –OH group at C 4.
– Glucose & mannose are C-2 epimers
Note: carbons in sugars are numbered beginning at end
containing the carbonyl C i.e., aldehyde or keto group
8. B. Enantiomers
- A special type of isomerism is found in the pairs of structures
that are mirror images of each other. These mirror images =
enantiomers, & the 2 members of the pair are designated as
D- & L-sugar. Vast majority of sugars in humans are D-sugars
Figure 7.5
Enantiomers (mirror
images) of glucose.
9. C. Cyclization of monosaccharides
- Less than 1% of each of the monosacch with 5 or
more C’s exist in the open-chain (acyclic) form.
Rather, they are predominantly found in ring form,
in which aldehyde (or ketone) group has reacted
with an alcohol group on the same sugar
11. Figure 7.6. The interconversion of the α and β anomeric forms of
glucose (mutarotation).
12. • Anomers are isomers which differ in placement of
hydroxyl on C1
• The –OH is drawn down for the -anomer, and up for
the -anomer
-D-Glucose -D-Glucose
O
CH2OH
OH
OH
OH
OH
O
CH2OH
OH
OH
OH
OH
and Anomers for D-Glucose
13. Types of Carbohydrates
Monosaccharides are the simplest carbohydrates
Empirical formula = (CH2O)n
Disaccharides consist of two monosaccharides
Polysaccharides contain many monosaccharides
14. Monosaccharide
Unbranched chain of 3-8 C atoms
One is carbonyl; others attached to -OH
Aldoses
contain an aldehyde group (carbon 1)
Ketoses
contain a ketone group (carbon 2)
CHO
HO H
CH2OH
CHO
HO H
OHH
CH2OH
CH2OH
O
HHO
OHH
OHH
OHCH2OH
Classification of Monosaccharides
15. Structural representation of sugars
• Fischer projection: straight chain
representation
• Haworth projection: simple ring in perspective
• Conformational representation: chair and boat
configurations
16. Rules for drawing Haworth projections
• draw either a six or 5-membered ring including
oxygen as one atom
• most aldohexoses are six-membered
• aldotetroses, aldopentoses, ketohexoses are 5-
membered
O O
17. Rules for drawing Haworth projections
• for D-sugars the last alcohal group (farthest
from the carbonyl) is drawn up.
• For L-sugars, it is drawn down
• for D-sugars, the OH group at the anomeric
position is drawn down for and up for .
• For L-sugars is up and is down
18. Chair and boat conformations of a pyranose sugar
2 possible chair conformations
of -D-glucose
19. Oxidation reactions
• Aldoses may be oxidized to 3 types of acids
– Aldonic acids: aldehyde group is converted to a carboxyl
group ( glucose – gluconic acid)
– Uronic acids: aldehyde is left intact and primary alcohol
at the other end is oxidized to COOH
• Glucose --- glucuronic acid
• Galactose --- galacturonic acid
– Saccharic acids (glycaric acids) – oxidation at both ends
of monosaccharide)
• Glucose ---- saccharic acid
• Galactose --- mucic acid
• Mannose --- mannaric acid
20. Special monosaccharides: deoxy sugars
• These are monosaccharides which lack one or
more hydroxyl groups on the molecule
• deoxy sugar is 2’-deoxy ribose which is the
sugar found in DNA
22. D-Glucose
• Most common hexose
• Found in fruits, corn syrup,
and honey
• An aldohexose with the
formula C6H12O6
• Known as blood sugar in the
body
• Building block for many
disaccharides and
polysaccharides
23. D-Fructose
• Ketohexose C6H12O6
• Differ from glucose at C1 and C2 (location
of carbonyl)
• The sweetest carbohydrate (2x sucrose)
• Found in fruit juices and honey
• Formed from hydrolysis of sucrose
• Converts to glucose in the body
D-Fructose
CH2OH
C
C
O
C
H
OHH
HO
C
CH2OH
OHH
24. D-Galactose
• Aldohexose
• Differ from D-glucose at C4
• Not found in the free form in
nature
• Obtained from lactose, a
disaccharide (milk products)
• Important in cellular membranes
in CNS
CHO
C
C
OH
C
H
HHO
HO
C
CH2OH
OHH
H
D-Galactose
27. •Most common disaccharides are
•Sucrose, lactose, and maltose
•Maltose hydrolyzes to 2 molecules of D-glucose
•Lactose hydrolyzes to a molecule of glucose and a
molecule of galactose
•Sucrose hydrolyzes to a molecules of glucose and a
molecule of fructose
Disaccharides
28. •galactose- -(1,4)-fructose
•a semi-synthetic disaccharide (not naturally
occurring)
•not absorbed in the GI tract
•used either as a laxative (Chronulac) or in the
management of portal systemic encephalopathy
(Cephulac)
•metabolized in distal ileum and colon by bacteria to
lactic acid, formic acid and acetic acid (remove
ammonia)
Lactulose
29.
30. Less common glucose disaccharides
Isomaltose (alpha 1,6)
Gentiobiose (beta 1,6)
Laminaribiose (beta 1,3)
Cellobiose (beta 1,4)
31. Cellobiose
Cellobiose consists of 2 molecules of glucose linked by a beta-1,4 glycosidic bond
It is usually obtained by the partial hydrolysis of cellulose
32. Trehalose is a disaccharide that occurs naturally in insects, plants, fungi, and bacteria. The
major dietary source is mushrooms. Trehalose is used in bakery goods, beverages,
confectionery, fruit jam, breakfast cereals, rice, and noodles as a texturizer, stabilizer with a low
sweetening intensity
O
CH2OH
H
O O
H
H
H
HO
H
OH
OH
H
OH H
H
OH
OH
H
HOH2C
TREHALOSE
Trehalose
37. Polysaccharides or glycans
Types
• homoglycans / homopolysaccharides (starch,
cellulose, glycogen, inulin)
• heteroglycans / heteropolysaccharides (gums,
mucopolysaccharides)
Characteristics
• Polymers (MW from 200,000)
• White and amorphous products (glossy)
• not sweet
• form colloidal solutions or suspensions
38. Tertiary structure - sterical/geometrical
conformations
• Rule-of-thumb: Overall shape of the chain is
determined by geometrical relationship within each
monosaccharide unit
1 4) - zig-zag - ribbon like
1 3) & 4) - U-turn - hollow helix
1 2) - twisted - crumpled
(1 6) - no ordered conformation
39. Starch
• most common storage polysaccharide in
plants
• composed of 10 – 30% amylose and 70-
90% amylopectin depending on the source
• the chains are of varying length, having
molecular weights from several thousands to
half a million
40. Starch
• Main sources of starch are rice, corn, wheat,
potatoes
• A storage polysaccharide
• Starch is used as an excipient, a binder in
medications to aid the formation of tablets.
• Industrially it has many applications such as
in adhesives, paper making, biofuel, textiles
41. Cellulose
• Polymer of -D-glucose attached by (1-->4) linkages
• Only digested and utilized by ruminants (cows, deers,
giraffes, camels)
• A structural polysaccharide
• Yields glucose upon complete hydrolysis
• Partial hydrolysis yields cellobiose
• Most abundant of all carbohydrates
• Cotton flax: 97-99% cellulose
• Wood: ~ 50% cellulose
• Gives no color with iodine
42. Products obtained from cellulose
• Microcrystalline cellulose : used as binder-
disintegrant in tablets
• Methylcellulose: suspending agent and laxative
• Oxidized cellulose: hemostat
• Sodium carboxymethyl cellulose: laxative
• Cellulose acetate: rayon; photographic film; plastics
• Cellulose acetate phthalate: enteric coating
• Nitrocellulose: explosives;
43. Glycogen
• also known as animal starch
• stored in muscle and liver (mostly)
• present in cells as granules (high MW)
• contains both (1,4) links and (1,6) branches at
every 8 to 12 glucose unit (more frequent than in
starch)
• complete hydrolysis yields glucose
• hydrolyzed by both and -amylases and by
glycogen phosphorylase
44. Inulin
• -(1,2) linked fructofuranoses
• linear only; no branching
• lower molecular weight than starch
• colors yellow with iodine
• hydrolysis yields fructose
• sources include onions,and garlic, dandelions and
jerusalem artichokes
• used as diagnostic agent for the renal function test
Jerusalem artichokes
45. Chitin
• Chitin is the second most
abundant carbohydrate
polymer
• Present in the cell wall of
fungi and in the
exoskeletons of crustaceans,
insects and spiders
• Chitin is used commercially
in coatings (extends the
shelf life of fruits and meats)
46. Dextrans
• products of the reaction of glucose and the enzyme
transglucosidase
• contains (1,4), (1,6) and (1,3) linkages
• MW: 40,000; 70,000; 75,000
• used as plasma extenders (treatment of shock)
• components of dental plaques
47. Dextrins
• produced by the partial hydrolysis of starch
along with maltose and glucose
• dextrins are often referred to as either
amylodextrins or erythrodextrins
• used as mucilages (glues)
• also used in infant formulas (prevent the
curdling of milk in baby’s stomach)
48. Glycoproteins and proteoglycans
• Glycoproteins are proteins conjugated to
saccharides lacking a serial repeating unit
• In glycoprotein the protein>>>carbohydrate
• Example include enzymes, immunoglobulins or antibodies,
certain hormones
• In Proteoglycans proteins are conjugated to
polysaccharides with serial repeating units
• Here carbohydrate>>> protein
• Proteoglycans modulate cell processes and make cartilage
flexible and resilient
49. Glycosaminoglycans
• they are the polysaccharide chains of proteoglycans
• they are linked to the protein core via a serine or
threonine (O-linked)
• the chains are linear (unbranched)
• the glycosaminoglycan chains are long (over 100
monosaccharides)
• they are composed of repeating disaccharides