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Semiconductor optoelectronic materials

This document discusses semiconductor materials and devices. It begins by explaining electricity and electron bands in atoms. It then discusses the properties and atomic structures of conductors, insulators, and semiconductors. Semiconductors can be made to act as insulators or conductors through doping, which introduces impurity atoms. The document describes how n-type and p-type semiconductors are formed and their current flow. It concludes by explaining how a p-n junction diode is formed at the interface of p-type and n-type semiconductors and its current-voltage characteristics.

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Semiconductor and optoelectronics Prof.V.Krishnakumar Professor and Head Department of Physics Periyar University Salem – 636 011 India
Electricity • Electricity is the flow of electrons • Good conductors (copper) have easily released electrons that drift within the metal • Under influence of electric field, electrons flow in a current –magnitude of current depends on magnitude of voltage applied to circuit, and the resistance in the path of the circuit • Current flow governed by Ohm’s Law + V = IR electron flow direction -
Electron Bands • Electrons circle nucleus in defined shells – K 2 electrons – L 8 electrons – M 18 electrons – N 32 electrons • Within each shell, electrons are further grouped into subshells – s 2 electrons – p 6 electrons – d 10 electrons – f 14 electrons • electrons are assigned to shells and subshells from inside out – Si has 14 electrons: 2 K, 8 L, 4 M 10 6 2 M shell K L d p s
Electronic Materials • The goal of electronic materials is to generate and control the flow of an electrical current. • Electronic materials include: 1. Conductors: have low resistance which allows electrical current flow 2. Insulators: have high resistance which suppresses electrical current flow 3. Semiconductors: can allow or suppress electrical current flow
Conductors • Good conductors have low resistance so electrons flow through them with ease. • Best element conductors include: – Copper, silver, gold, aluminum, & nickel • Alloys are also good conductors: – Brass & steel • Good conductors can also be liquid: – Salt water
Conductor Atomic Structure • The atomic structure of good conductors usually includes only one electron in their outer shell. – It is called a valence electron. – It is easily striped from the atom, producing current flow. Copper Atom
Insulators • Insulators have a high resistance so current does not flow in them. • Good insulators include: – Glass, ceramic, plastics, & wood • Most insulators are compounds of several elements. • The atoms are tightly bound to one another so electrons are difficult to strip away for current flow.
Semiconductors • Semiconductors are materials that essentially can be conditioned to act as good conductors, or good insulators, or any thing in between. • Common elements such as carbon, silicon, and germanium are semiconductors. • Silicon is the best and most widely used semiconductor.
Semiconductor Valence Orbit • The main characteristic of a semiconductor element is that it has four electrons in its outer or valence orbit.
Crystal Lattice Structure • The unique capability of semiconductor atoms is their ability to link together to form a physical structure called a crystal lattice. • The atoms link together with one another sharing their outer electrons. • These links are called covalent bonds. 2D Crystal Lattice Structure
3D Crystal Lattice Structure
Semiconductors can be Insulators • If the material is pure semiconductor material like silicon, the crystal lattice structure forms an excellent insulator since all the atoms are bound to one another and are not free for current flow. • Good insulating semiconductor material is referred to as intrinsic. • Since the outer valence electrons of each atom are tightly bound together with one another, the electrons are difficult to dislodge for current flow. • Silicon in this form is a great insulator. • Semiconductor material is often used as an insulator.
Doping • To make the semiconductor conduct electricity, other atoms called impurities must be added. • “Impurities” are different elements. • This process is called doping.
Semiconductors can be Conductors • An impurity, or element like arsenic, has 5 valence electrons. • Adding arsenic (doping) will allow four of the arsenic valence electrons to bond with the neighboring silicon atoms. • The one electron left over for each arsenic atom becomes available to conduct current flow.
N-Type Semiconductor The silicon doped with extra electrons is called an “N type” semiconductor. “N” is for negative, which is the charge of an electron.
Resistance Effects of Doping • If you use lots of arsenic atoms for doping, there will be lots of extra electrons so the resistance of the material will be low and current will flow freely. • If you use only a few boron atoms, there will be fewer free electrons so the resistance will be high and less current will flow. • By controlling the doping amount, virtually any resistance can be achieved.
Current Flow in N-type Semiconductors • The DC voltage source has a positive terminal that attracts the free electrons in the semiconductor and pulls them away from their atoms leaving the atoms charged positively. • Electrons from the negative terminal of the supply enter the semiconductor material and are attracted by the positive charge of the atoms missing one of their electrons. • Current (electrons) flows from the positive terminal to the negative terminal.
Another Way to Dope • You can also dope a semiconductor material with an atom such as boron that has only 3 valence electrons. • The 3 electrons in the outer orbit do form covalent bonds with its neighboring semiconductor atoms as before. But one electron is missing from the bond. • This place where a fourth electron should be is referred to as a hole. • The hole assumes a positive charge so it can attract electrons from some other source. • Holes become a type of current carrier like the electron to support current flow.
P-Type Semiconductor Silicon doped with material missing electrons that produce locations called holes is called “P type” semiconductor. “P” is for positive, which is the charge of a hole.
Current Flow in P-type Semiconductors • Electrons from the negative supply terminal are attracted to the positive holes and fill them. • The positive terminal of the supply pulls the electrons from the holes leaving the holes to attract more electrons. • Current (electrons) flows from the negative terminal to the positive terminal. • Inside the semiconductor current flow is actually by the movement of the holes from positive to negative.
Introduction to Semiconductor Devices Semiconductor p-n junction diodes p n
p-n junction formation p-type material Semiconductor material doped with acceptors. Material has high hole concentration Concentration of free electrons in p-type material is very low. n-type material Semiconductor material doped with donors. Material has high concentration of free electrons. Concentration of holes in n-type material is very low.
p-n junction formation p-type material Contains NEGATIVELY charged acceptors (immovable) and POSITIVELY charged holes (free). Total charge = 0 n-type material Contains POSITIVELY charged donors (immovable) and NEGATIVELY charged free electrons. Total charge = 0
Diffusion A substance, the purple dots, in solution. A membrane prevents movement of the water and the molecules from crossing from one side of the beaker to the other. Now that the gates have been opened, the random movements of the molecules have caused, overtime, the number of molecules to be equal on the two sides of the barrier.
Diffusion As a result of diffusion, the molecules or other free particles distribute uniformly over the entire volume
p- n junction formation What happens if n- and p-type materials are in close contact? Being free particles, electrons start diffusing from n-type material into p-material Being free particles, holes, too, start diffusing from p-type material into n-material Have they been NEUTRAL particles, eventually all the free electrons and holes had uniformly distributed over the entire compound crystal. However, every electrons transfers a negative charge (-q) onto the p-side and also leaves an uncompensated (+q) charge of the donor on the n-side. Every hole creates one positive charge (q) on the n-side and (-q) on the p-side
p- n junction formation What happens if n- and p-type materials are in close contact? p-type n-type Electrons and holes remain staying close to the p-n junction because negative and positive charges attract each other. Negative charge stops electrons from further diffusion Positive charge stops holes from further diffusion The diffusion forms a dipole charge layer at the p-n junction interface. There is a “built-in” VOLTAGE at the p-n junction interface that prevents penetration of electrons into the p-side and holes into the n-side.
p- n junction current – voltage characteristics What happens when the voltage is applied to a p-n junction? p-type n-type The polarity shown, attracts holes to the left and electrons to the right. According to the current continuity law, the current can only flow if all the charged particles move forming a closed loop However, there are very few holes in n-type material and there are very few electrons in the p-type material. There are very few carriers available to support the current through the junction plane For the voltage polarity shown, the current is nearly zero
p- n junction current – voltage characteristics What happens if voltage of opposite polarity is applied to a p-n junction? p-type n-type The polarity shown, attracts electrons to the left and holes to the right. There are plenty of electrons in the n-type material and plenty of holes in the p-type material. There are a lot of carriers available to cross the junction. When the voltage applied is lower than the built-in voltage, the current is still nearly zero When the voltage exceeds the built-in voltage, the current can flow through the p-n junction
Diode current – voltage (I-V) characteristics Semiconductor diode consists of a p-n junction with two contacts attached to the p- and n- sides V 0 ù p n I I qV S exp = æ 1 úû é êë ö çè - ÷ø kT IS is usually a very small current, IS ≈ 10-17 …10-13 A When the voltage V is negative (“reverse” polarity) the exponential term ≈ -1; The diode current is ≈ IS ( very small). When the voltage V is positive (“forward” polarity) the exponential term increases rapidly with V and the current is high.
p- n diode applications: Light emitters P-n junction can emit the light when forward biased p-type n-type +- Electrons drift into p-material and find plenty of holes there. They “RECOMBINE” by filling up the “empty” positions. Holes drift into n-material and find plenty of electrons there. They also “RECOMBINE” by filling up the “empty” positions. The energy released in the process of “annihilation” produces PHOTONS – the particles of light
+- p- n diode applications: Photodetectors P-n junction can detect light when reverse biased p-type n-type When the light illuminates the p-n junction, the photons energy RELEASES free electrons and holes. They are referred to as PHOTO-ELECTRONS and PHOTO-HOLES The applied voltage separates the photo-carriers attracting electrons toward “plus” and holes toward “minus” As long as the light is ON, there is a current flowing through the p-n junction
CB VB WWhheenn tthhee eelleeccttrroonn ffaallllss ddoowwnn ffrroomm ccoonndduuccttiioonn bbaanndd aanndd ffiillllss iinn aa hhoollee iinn vvaalleennccee bbaanndd,, tthheerree iiss aann oobbvviioouuss lloossss ooff eenneerrggyy..
IInn oorrddeerr ttoo aacchhiieevvee aa rreeaassoonnaabbllee eeffffiicciieennccyy ffoorr pphhoottoonn eemmiissssiioonn,, tthhee sseemmiiccoonndduuccttoorr mmuusstt hhaavvee aa ddiirreecctt bbaanndd ggaapp.. CB VB
FFoorr eexxaammppllee;; SSiilliiccoonn iiss kknnoowwnn aass aann iinnddiirreecctt bbaanndd--ggaapp mmaatteerriiaall.. aass aann eelleeccttrroonn ggooeess ffrroomm tthhee bboottttoomm ooff tthhee ccoonndduuccttiioonn bbaanndd ttoo tthhee ttoopp ooff tthhee vvaalleennccee bbaanndd;; iitt mmuusstt aallssoo uunnddeerrggoo aa ssiiggnniiffiiccaanntt cchhaannggee iinn mmoommeennttuumm.. CB VB WWhhaatt tthhiiss mmeeaannss iiss tthhaatt E k
• As we all kknnooww,, wwhheenneevveerr ssoommeetthhiinngg cchhaannggeess ssttaattee,, oonnee mmuusstt ccoonnsseerrvvee nnoott oonnllyy eenneerrggyy,, bbuutt aallssoo mmoommeennttuumm.. • IInn tthhee ccaassee ooff aann eelleeccttrroonn ggooiinngg ffrroomm ccoonndduuccttiioonn bbaanndd ttoo tthhee vvaalleennccee bbaanndd iinn ssiilliiccoonn,, bbootthh ooff tthheessee tthhiinnggss ccaann oonnllyy bbee ccoonnsseerrvveedd:: The transition also creates a quantized set of lattice vibrations, called phonons, or "heat“ .
• PPhhoonnoonnss ppoosssseessss bbootthh eenneerrggyy aanndd mmoommeennttuumm.. • TThheeiirr ccrreeaattiioonn uuppoonn tthhee rreeccoommbbiinnaattiioonn ooff aann eelleeccttrroonn aanndd hhoollee aalllloowwss ffoorr ccoommpplleettee ccoonnsseerrvvaattiioonn ooff bbootthh eenneerrggyy aanndd mmoommeennttuumm.. • AAllll ooff tthhee eenneerrggyy wwhhiicchh tthhee eelleeccttrroonn ggiivveess uupp iinn ggooiinngg ffrroomm tthhee ccoonndduuccttiioonn bbaanndd ttoo tthhee vvaalleennccee bbaanndd ((11..11 eeVV)) eennddss uupp iinn pphhoonnoonnss,, wwhhiicchh iiss aannootthheerr wwaayy ooff ssaayyiinngg tthhaatt tthhee eelleeccttrroonn hheeaattss uupp tthhee ccrryyssttaall..
In aa ccllaassss ooff mmaatteerriiaallss ccaalllleedd ddiirreecctt bbaanndd--ggaapp sseemmiiccoonndduuccttoorrss;; »tthhee ttrraannssiittiioonn ffrroomm ccoonndduuccttiioonn bbaanndd ttoo vvaalleennccee bbaanndd iinnvvoollvveess eesssseennttiiaallllyy nnoo cchhaannggee iinn mmoommeennttuumm.. »PPhhoottoonnss,, iitt ttuurrnnss oouutt,, ppoosssseessss aa ffaaiirr aammoouunntt ooff eenneerrggyy (( sseevveerraall eeVV/pphhoottoonn iinn ssoommee ccaasseess )) bbuutt tthheeyy hhaavvee vveerryy lliittttllee mmoommeennttuumm aassssoocciiaatteedd wwiitthh tthheemm..
• Thus, for a ddiirreecctt bbaanndd ggaapp mmaatteerriiaall,, tthhee eexxcceessss eenneerrggyy ooff tthhee eelleeccttrroonn--hhoollee rreeccoommbbiinnaattiioonn ccaann eeiitthheerr bbee ttaakkeenn aawwaayy aass hheeaatt,, oorr mmoorree lliikkeellyy,, aass aa pphhoottoonn ooff lliigghhtt.. • TThhiiss rraaddiiaattiivvee ttrraannssiittiioonn tthheenn ccoonnsseerrvveess eenneerrggyy aanndd mmoommeennttuumm bbyy ggiivviinngg ooffff lliigghhtt wwhheenneevveerr aann eelleeccttrroonn aanndd hhoollee rreeccoommbbiinnee.. CB VB TThhiiss ggiivveess rriissee ttoo ((ffoorr uuss)) aa nneeww ttyyppee ooff ddeevviiccee;; tthhee lliigghhtt eemmiittttiinngg ddiiooddee ((LLEEDD))..
What is LED? Semiconductors bring quality to light! LED are semiconductor p-n junctions that under forward bias conditions can emit radiation by electroluminescence in the UV, visible or infrared regions of the electromagnetic spectrum. The qaunta of light energy released is approximately proportional to the band gap of the semiconductor.
Getting to know LED Advantages of Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) Longevity: The light emitting element in a diode is a small conductor chip rather than a filament which greatly extends the diode’s life in comparison to an incandescent bulb (10 000 hours life time compared to ~1000 hours for incandescence light bulb) Efficiency: Diodes emit almost no heat and run at very low amperes. Greater Light Intensity: Since each diode emits its own light Cost: Not too bad Robustness: Solid state component, not as fragile as incandescence light bulb
LED chip is the part that we shall deal with in this course
Luminescence is the process behind light emission • Luminescence is a term used to describe the emission of radiation from a solid when the solid is supplied with some form of energy. • Electroluminescence  excitation results from the application of an electric field • In a p-n junction diode injection electroluminescence occurs resulting in light emission when the junction is forward biased
PPrroodduucciinngg pphhoottoonn EElleeccttrroonnss rreeccoommbbiinnee wwiitthh hhoolleess.. EEnneerrggyy ooff pphhoottoonn iiss tthhee eenneerrggyy ooff bbaanndd ggaapp.. CB VB e-h
How does it work? P-n junction Electrical Contacts A typical LED needs aa pp--nn jjuunnccttiioonn There are a lot of electrons and holes at the junction due to excitations Electrons from n need to be injected to p to promote recombination Junction is biased to produce even more e-h and to inject electrons from n to p for recombination to happen Recombination produces light!!
Injection Luminescence in LED  Under forward bias – majority carriers from both sides of the junction can cross the depletion region and entering the material at the other side.  Upon entering, the majority carriers become minority carriers  For example, electrons in n-type (majority carriers) enter the p-type to become minority carriers  The minority carriers will be larger  minority carrier injection  Minority carriers will diffuse and recombine with the majority carrier.  For example, the electrons as minority carriers in the p-region will recombine with the holes. Holes are the majority carrier in the p-region.  The recombination causes light to be emitted  Such process is termed radiative recombination.
MMAATTEERRIIAALLSS FFOORR LLEEDDSS • TThhee sseemmiiccoonndduuccttoorr bbaannddggaapp eenneerrggyy ddeeffiinneess tthhee eenneerrggyy ooff tthhee eemmiitttteedd pphhoottoonnss iinn aa LLEEDD.. • TToo ffaabbrriiccaattee LLEEDDss tthhaatt ccaann eemmiitt pphhoottoonnss ffrroomm tthhee iinnffrraarreedd ttoo tthhee uullttrraavviioolleett ppaarrttss ooff tthhee ee..mm.. ssppeeccttrruumm,, tthheenn wwee mmuusstt ccoonnssiiddeerr sseevveerraall ddiiffffeerreenntt mmaatteerriiaall ssyysstteemmss.. • NNoo ssiinnggllee ssyysstteemm ccaann ssppaann tthhiiss eenneerrggyy bbaanndd aatt pprreesseenntt,, aalltthhoouugghh tthhee 33--55 nniittrriiddeess ccoommee cclloossee.. CB VB
• Unfortunately, many ooff ppootteennttiiaallllllyy uusseeffuull 22--66 ggrroouupp ooff ddiirreecctt bbaanndd--ggaapp sseemmiiccoonndduuccttoorrss ((ZZnnSSee,,ZZnnTTee,,eettcc..)) ccoommee nnaattuurraallllyy ddooppeedd eeiitthheerr pp-- ttyyppee,, oorr nn--ttyyppee,, bbuutt tthheeyy ddoonn’’tt lliikkee ttoo bbee ttyyppee-- ccoonnvveerrtteedd bbyy oovveerrddooppiinngg.. • TThhee mmaatteerriiaall rreeaassoonnss bbeehhiinndd tthhiiss aarree ccoommpplliiccaatteedd aanndd nnoott eennttiirreellyy wweellll--kknnoowwnn.. • TThhee ssaammee pprroobblleemm iiss eennccoouunntteerreedd iinn tthhee 33--55 nniittrriiddeess aanndd tthheeiirr aallllooyyss IInnNN,, GGaaNN,, AAllNN,, IInnGGaaNN,, AAllGGaaNN,, aanndd IInnAAllGGaaNN.. TThhee aammaazziinngg tthhiinngg aabboouutt 33--55 nniittrriiddee aallllooyy ssyysstteemmss iiss tthhaatt aappppeeaarr ttoo bbee ddiirreecctt ggaapp tthhrroouugghhoouutt..
Construction of Typical LED Light output n Substrate Al SiO2 Electrical contacts p
LED Construction  Efficient light emitter is also an efficient absorbers of radiation therefore, a shallow p-n junction required.  Active materials (n and p) will be grown on a lattice matched substrate.  The p-n junction will be forward biased with contacts made by metallisation to the upper and lower surfaces.  Ought to leave the upper part ‘clear’ so photon can escape.  The silica provides passivation/device isolation and carrier confinement
Efficient LED  Need a p-n junction (preferably the same semiconductor material only different dopants)  Recombination must occur  Radiative transmission to give out the ‘right coloured LED’  ‘Right coloured LED’  hc/l = Ec-Ev = Eg  so choose material with the right Eg  Direct band gap semiconductors to allow efficient recombination  All photons created must be able to leave the semiconductor  Little or no reabsorption of photons
Correct band gap Direct band gap Materials Requirements Material can be made p and n-type Efficient radiative pathways must exist
Direct band gap Candidate Materials materials e.g. GaAs not Si  UV-ED l ~0.5-400nm Eg > 3.25eV  LED - l ~450-650nm Eg = 3.1eV to 1.6eV  IR-ED- l ~750nm- 1nm Eg = 1.65eV Readily Materials with refractive doped n or p-types index that could allow light to ‘get out’
Candidate Materials Group III-V & Group II-VI Group II Group III Group IV Group V iii iv v ii Al Ga In N P As Periodic Table to show group III-V and II-V binaries
Candidate Materials Group III-V & Group II-VI Group II Group III Group IV Group V iii iv v ii Al Ga In N P As Periodic Table to show group III-V and II-V binaries
CCoolloorr NNaammee WWaavveelleennggtthh ((NNaannoommeetteerrss)) SSeemmiiccoonndduuccttoorr CCoommppoossiittiioonn IInnffrraarreedd 888800 GGaaAAllAAss//GGaaAAss UUllttrraa RReedd 666600 GGaaAAllAAss//GGaaAAllAAss SSuuppeerr RReedd 663333 AAllGGaaIInnPP SSuuppeerr OOrraannggee 661122 AAllGGaaIInnPP OOrraannggee 660055 GGaaAAssPP//GGaaPP YYeellllooww 558855 GGaaAAssPP//GGaaPP IInnccaannddeesscceenntt WWhhiittee 44550000KK ((CCTT)) IInnGGaaNN//SSiiCC PPaallee WWhhiittee 66550000KK ((CCTT)) IInnGGaaNN//SSiiCC CCooooll WWhhiittee 88000000KK ((CCTT)) IInnGGaaNN//SSiiCC PPuurree GGrreeeenn 555555 GGaaPP//GGaaPP SSuuppeerr BBlluuee 447700 GGaaNN//SSiiCC BBlluuee VViioolleett 443300 GGaaNN//SSiiCC UUllttrraavviioolleett 339955 IInnGGaaNN//SSiiCC
Getting to know LED Advantages of Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) Longevity: The light emitting element in a diode is a small conductor chip rather than a filament which greatly extends the diode’s life in comparison to an incandescent bulb (10 000 hours life time compared to ~1000 hours for incandescence light bulb) Efficiency: Diodes emit almost no heat and run at very low amperes. Greater Light Intensity: Since each diode emits its own light Cost: Not too bad Robustness: Solid state component, not as fragile as incandescence light bulb
LED chip is the part that we shall deal with in this course
Some Types of LEDs Bargraph 7-segment Starburst Dot matrix
Applications of LEDs
Your fancy telephone, i-pod, palm pilot and digital camera
• Diode laser
• What is the word LASER stands for? • Light amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation
Stimulated Emission E2 E1 hu (a) Absorption hu E2 E2 E1 E1 (b) Spontaneous emission hu In hu Out hu (c) Stimulated emission Absorption, spontaneous (random photon) emission and stimulated emission. © 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall) In stimulated emission, an incoming photon with energy hu stimulates the emission process by inducing electrons in E2 to transit down to E1. While moving down to E1, photon of the same energy hu will be emitted Resulting in 2 photons coming out of the system Photons are amplified – one incoming photon resulting in two photons coming out.
Population Inversion • Non equilibrium distribution of atoms among the various energy level atomic system • To induce more atoms in E2, i.e. to create population inversion, a large amount of energy is required to excite atoms to E2 • The excitation process of atoms so N2 > N2 is called pumping • It is difficult to attain pumping when using two-level-system. • Require 3-level system instead More atoms here E2 E1 N2> N1 N2 N1 E3 E2 E1 There level system
Principles of Laser E 3 E 1 hu13 E 2 Metastable state E 3 E 1 E 2 hu32 E 3 E 1 E 2 E 3 E 1 E 2 OUT hu21 hu21 Coherent photons (a) (b) (c) (d) . IN • In actual case, excite atoms from E1 to E3. • Exciting atoms from E1 to E3 optical pumping • Atoms from E3 decays rapidly to E2 emitting hu3 • If E2 is a long lived state, atoms from E2 will not decay to E1 rapidly • Condition where there are a lot of atoms in E2 population inversion achieved! i.e. between E2 and E1.
Coherent Photons Production (explanation of (d)) • When one atom in E2 decays spontaneously, a random photon resulted which will induce stimulated photon from the neighbouring atoms • The photons from the neighbouring atoms will stimulate their neighbours and form avalanche of photons. • Large collection of coherent photons resulted.
Laser Diode Principle • Consider a p-n junction • In order to design a laser diode, the p-n junction must be heavily doped. • In other word, the p and n materials must be degenerately doped • By degenerated doping, the Fermi level of the n-side will lies in the conduction band whereas the Fermi level in the p-region will lie in the valance band.
Diode Laser Operation p+ n+ E Fn E g (a) E c E v E v Holes inVB Junction Electrons inCB Electrons E c p+ E g V n+ (b) E Fn eV E Fp Inversion region E Fp E c E c eV o •P-n junction must be degenerately doped. •Fermi level in valance band (p) and conduction band (n). •No bias, built n potential; eVo barrier to stop electron and holes movement •Forward bias, eV> Eg •Built in potential diminished to zero •Electrons and holes can diffuse to the space charge layer
Application of Forward Bias • Suppose that the degenerately doped p-n junction is forward biased by a voltage greater than the band gap; eV > Eg • The separation between EFn and EFp is now the applied potential energy • The applied voltage diminished the built-in potential barrier, eVo to almost zero. • Electrons can now flow to the p-side • Holes can now flow to the n-side
Population Inversion in Diode Laser hu Optical gain EFn - EFp Eg 0 Optical absorption Energy EFn Ec Ev CB VB Electrons in CB Holes in VB = Empty states Density of states EFp eV At T > 0 At T = 0 (a) (b) (a) The density of states and energy distribution of electrons and holes in the conduction and valence bands respectively at T » 0 in the SCL under forward bias such that EFn - EFp > Eg. Holes in the VB are empty states. (b) Gain vs. photon energy. © 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
Population Inversion in Diode Laser Electrons in CB EFn EFp CB VB Eg Holes in VB eV EFn-EfP = eV eV > Eg eV = forward bias voltage Fwd Diode current pumping  injection pumping More electrons in the conduction band near EC Than electrons in the valance band near EV There is therefore a population inversion between energies near EC and near EV around the junction. This only achieved when degenerately doped p-n junction is forward bias with energy > Egap
The Lasing Action • The population inversion region is a layer along the junction  also call inversion layer or active region • Now consider a photon with E = Eg • Obviously this photon can not excite electrons from EV since there is NO electrons there • However the photon CAN STIMULATE electron to fall down from CB to VB. • Therefore, the incoming photon stimulates emission than absorption • The active region is then said to have ‘optical gain’ since the incoming photon has the ability to cause emission rather than being absorbed.
Pumping Mechanism in Laser Diode • It is obvious that the population inversion between energies near EC and those near EV occurs by injection of large charge carrier across the junction by forward biasing the junction. • Therefore the pumping mechanism is FORWARD DIODE CURRENT  Injection pumping
For Successful Lasing Action: 1. Optical Gain (not absorb) Achieved by population inversion 2. Optical Feedback Achieved by device configuration Needed to increase the total optical amplification by making photons pass through the gain region multiple times Insert 2 mirrors at each end of laser This is term an oscillator cavity or Fabry Perot cavity Mirrors are partly transmitted and party reflected
Materials for Laser Diodes
Optical Power in Laser is Very High due to Optical Feedback and Higher Forward Bias Current. Threshold current density
Direct Gap Diode Laser • Direct band gap  high probability of electrons-holes recombination  radioactively • The recombination radiation may interact with the holes in the valance band and being absorbed or interact with the electrons in the conduction band thereby stimulating the production of further photons of the same frequency  stimulated emission
Materials Available
Technologically Important Material for Blue Laser
InGaN and AlGaN • InGaN and AlGaN have been produced over the entire composition range between their component binaries; InN, GaN, AlN • InAlN is less explored. • GaN and AlN are fairly well lattice-matched to SiC substrates, • SiC has substrate is better as it can be doped (dopability) and high thermal conductivity relative to more commonly used Al2O3 substrates. • AlN and GaN can be used for high temperature application due to wide bandgaps and low intrinsic carrier concentrations.
Laser sword

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Semiconductor optoelectronic materials

  • 1.
    Semiconductor and optoelectronics Prof.V.Krishnakumar Professor and Head Department of Physics Periyar University Salem – 636 011 India
  • 2.
    Electricity • Electricityis the flow of electrons • Good conductors (copper) have easily released electrons that drift within the metal • Under influence of electric field, electrons flow in a current –magnitude of current depends on magnitude of voltage applied to circuit, and the resistance in the path of the circuit • Current flow governed by Ohm’s Law + V = IR electron flow direction -
  • 3.
    Electron Bands •Electrons circle nucleus in defined shells – K 2 electrons – L 8 electrons – M 18 electrons – N 32 electrons • Within each shell, electrons are further grouped into subshells – s 2 electrons – p 6 electrons – d 10 electrons – f 14 electrons • electrons are assigned to shells and subshells from inside out – Si has 14 electrons: 2 K, 8 L, 4 M 10 6 2 M shell K L d p s
  • 4.
    Electronic Materials •The goal of electronic materials is to generate and control the flow of an electrical current. • Electronic materials include: 1. Conductors: have low resistance which allows electrical current flow 2. Insulators: have high resistance which suppresses electrical current flow 3. Semiconductors: can allow or suppress electrical current flow
  • 5.
    Conductors • Goodconductors have low resistance so electrons flow through them with ease. • Best element conductors include: – Copper, silver, gold, aluminum, & nickel • Alloys are also good conductors: – Brass & steel • Good conductors can also be liquid: – Salt water
  • 6.
    Conductor Atomic Structure • The atomic structure of good conductors usually includes only one electron in their outer shell. – It is called a valence electron. – It is easily striped from the atom, producing current flow. Copper Atom
  • 7.
    Insulators • Insulatorshave a high resistance so current does not flow in them. • Good insulators include: – Glass, ceramic, plastics, & wood • Most insulators are compounds of several elements. • The atoms are tightly bound to one another so electrons are difficult to strip away for current flow.
  • 8.
    Semiconductors • Semiconductorsare materials that essentially can be conditioned to act as good conductors, or good insulators, or any thing in between. • Common elements such as carbon, silicon, and germanium are semiconductors. • Silicon is the best and most widely used semiconductor.
  • 9.
    Semiconductor Valence Orbit • The main characteristic of a semiconductor element is that it has four electrons in its outer or valence orbit.
  • 10.
    Crystal Lattice Structure • The unique capability of semiconductor atoms is their ability to link together to form a physical structure called a crystal lattice. • The atoms link together with one another sharing their outer electrons. • These links are called covalent bonds. 2D Crystal Lattice Structure
  • 11.
  • 12.
    Semiconductors can beInsulators • If the material is pure semiconductor material like silicon, the crystal lattice structure forms an excellent insulator since all the atoms are bound to one another and are not free for current flow. • Good insulating semiconductor material is referred to as intrinsic. • Since the outer valence electrons of each atom are tightly bound together with one another, the electrons are difficult to dislodge for current flow. • Silicon in this form is a great insulator. • Semiconductor material is often used as an insulator.
  • 13.
    Doping • Tomake the semiconductor conduct electricity, other atoms called impurities must be added. • “Impurities” are different elements. • This process is called doping.
  • 14.
    Semiconductors can beConductors • An impurity, or element like arsenic, has 5 valence electrons. • Adding arsenic (doping) will allow four of the arsenic valence electrons to bond with the neighboring silicon atoms. • The one electron left over for each arsenic atom becomes available to conduct current flow.
  • 15.
    N-Type Semiconductor Thesilicon doped with extra electrons is called an “N type” semiconductor. “N” is for negative, which is the charge of an electron.
  • 16.
    Resistance Effects ofDoping • If you use lots of arsenic atoms for doping, there will be lots of extra electrons so the resistance of the material will be low and current will flow freely. • If you use only a few boron atoms, there will be fewer free electrons so the resistance will be high and less current will flow. • By controlling the doping amount, virtually any resistance can be achieved.
  • 17.
    Current Flow inN-type Semiconductors • The DC voltage source has a positive terminal that attracts the free electrons in the semiconductor and pulls them away from their atoms leaving the atoms charged positively. • Electrons from the negative terminal of the supply enter the semiconductor material and are attracted by the positive charge of the atoms missing one of their electrons. • Current (electrons) flows from the positive terminal to the negative terminal.
  • 18.
    Another Way toDope • You can also dope a semiconductor material with an atom such as boron that has only 3 valence electrons. • The 3 electrons in the outer orbit do form covalent bonds with its neighboring semiconductor atoms as before. But one electron is missing from the bond. • This place where a fourth electron should be is referred to as a hole. • The hole assumes a positive charge so it can attract electrons from some other source. • Holes become a type of current carrier like the electron to support current flow.
  • 19.
    P-Type Semiconductor Silicondoped with material missing electrons that produce locations called holes is called “P type” semiconductor. “P” is for positive, which is the charge of a hole.
  • 20.
    Current Flow inP-type Semiconductors • Electrons from the negative supply terminal are attracted to the positive holes and fill them. • The positive terminal of the supply pulls the electrons from the holes leaving the holes to attract more electrons. • Current (electrons) flows from the negative terminal to the positive terminal. • Inside the semiconductor current flow is actually by the movement of the holes from positive to negative.
  • 21.
    Introduction to SemiconductorDevices Semiconductor p-n junction diodes p n
  • 22.
    p-n junction formation p-type material Semiconductor material doped with acceptors. Material has high hole concentration Concentration of free electrons in p-type material is very low. n-type material Semiconductor material doped with donors. Material has high concentration of free electrons. Concentration of holes in n-type material is very low.
  • 23.
    p-n junction formation p-type material Contains NEGATIVELY charged acceptors (immovable) and POSITIVELY charged holes (free). Total charge = 0 n-type material Contains POSITIVELY charged donors (immovable) and NEGATIVELY charged free electrons. Total charge = 0
  • 24.
    Diffusion A substance,the purple dots, in solution. A membrane prevents movement of the water and the molecules from crossing from one side of the beaker to the other. Now that the gates have been opened, the random movements of the molecules have caused, overtime, the number of molecules to be equal on the two sides of the barrier.
  • 25.
    Diffusion As aresult of diffusion, the molecules or other free particles distribute uniformly over the entire volume
  • 26.
    p- n junctionformation What happens if n- and p-type materials are in close contact? Being free particles, electrons start diffusing from n-type material into p-material Being free particles, holes, too, start diffusing from p-type material into n-material Have they been NEUTRAL particles, eventually all the free electrons and holes had uniformly distributed over the entire compound crystal. However, every electrons transfers a negative charge (-q) onto the p-side and also leaves an uncompensated (+q) charge of the donor on the n-side. Every hole creates one positive charge (q) on the n-side and (-q) on the p-side
  • 27.
    p- n junctionformation What happens if n- and p-type materials are in close contact? p-type n-type Electrons and holes remain staying close to the p-n junction because negative and positive charges attract each other. Negative charge stops electrons from further diffusion Positive charge stops holes from further diffusion The diffusion forms a dipole charge layer at the p-n junction interface. There is a “built-in” VOLTAGE at the p-n junction interface that prevents penetration of electrons into the p-side and holes into the n-side.
  • 28.
    p- n junctioncurrent – voltage characteristics What happens when the voltage is applied to a p-n junction? p-type n-type The polarity shown, attracts holes to the left and electrons to the right. According to the current continuity law, the current can only flow if all the charged particles move forming a closed loop However, there are very few holes in n-type material and there are very few electrons in the p-type material. There are very few carriers available to support the current through the junction plane For the voltage polarity shown, the current is nearly zero
  • 29.
    p- n junctioncurrent – voltage characteristics What happens if voltage of opposite polarity is applied to a p-n junction? p-type n-type The polarity shown, attracts electrons to the left and holes to the right. There are plenty of electrons in the n-type material and plenty of holes in the p-type material. There are a lot of carriers available to cross the junction. When the voltage applied is lower than the built-in voltage, the current is still nearly zero When the voltage exceeds the built-in voltage, the current can flow through the p-n junction
  • 30.
    Diode current –voltage (I-V) characteristics Semiconductor diode consists of a p-n junction with two contacts attached to the p- and n- sides V 0 ù p n I I qV S exp = æ 1 úû é êë ö çè - ÷ø kT IS is usually a very small current, IS ≈ 10-17 …10-13 A When the voltage V is negative (“reverse” polarity) the exponential term ≈ -1; The diode current is ≈ IS ( very small). When the voltage V is positive (“forward” polarity) the exponential term increases rapidly with V and the current is high.
  • 31.
    p- n diodeapplications: Light emitters P-n junction can emit the light when forward biased p-type n-type +- Electrons drift into p-material and find plenty of holes there. They “RECOMBINE” by filling up the “empty” positions. Holes drift into n-material and find plenty of electrons there. They also “RECOMBINE” by filling up the “empty” positions. The energy released in the process of “annihilation” produces PHOTONS – the particles of light
  • 32.
    +- p- ndiode applications: Photodetectors P-n junction can detect light when reverse biased p-type n-type When the light illuminates the p-n junction, the photons energy RELEASES free electrons and holes. They are referred to as PHOTO-ELECTRONS and PHOTO-HOLES The applied voltage separates the photo-carriers attracting electrons toward “plus” and holes toward “minus” As long as the light is ON, there is a current flowing through the p-n junction
  • 33.
    CB VB WWhheenntthhee eelleeccttrroonn ffaallllss ddoowwnn ffrroomm ccoonndduuccttiioonn bbaanndd aanndd ffiillllss iinn aa hhoollee iinn vvaalleennccee bbaanndd,, tthheerree iiss aann oobbvviioouuss lloossss ooff eenneerrggyy..
  • 34.
    IInn oorrddeerr ttooaacchhiieevvee aa rreeaassoonnaabbllee eeffffiicciieennccyy ffoorr pphhoottoonn eemmiissssiioonn,, tthhee sseemmiiccoonndduuccttoorr mmuusstt hhaavvee aa ddiirreecctt bbaanndd ggaapp.. CB VB
  • 35.
    FFoorr eexxaammppllee;; SSiilliiccoonniiss kknnoowwnn aass aann iinnddiirreecctt bbaanndd--ggaapp mmaatteerriiaall.. aass aann eelleeccttrroonn ggooeess ffrroomm tthhee bboottttoomm ooff tthhee ccoonndduuccttiioonn bbaanndd ttoo tthhee ttoopp ooff tthhee vvaalleennccee bbaanndd;; iitt mmuusstt aallssoo uunnddeerrggoo aa ssiiggnniiffiiccaanntt cchhaannggee iinn mmoommeennttuumm.. CB VB WWhhaatt tthhiiss mmeeaannss iiss tthhaatt E k
  • 36.
    • As weall kknnooww,, wwhheenneevveerr ssoommeetthhiinngg cchhaannggeess ssttaattee,, oonnee mmuusstt ccoonnsseerrvvee nnoott oonnllyy eenneerrggyy,, bbuutt aallssoo mmoommeennttuumm.. • IInn tthhee ccaassee ooff aann eelleeccttrroonn ggooiinngg ffrroomm ccoonndduuccttiioonn bbaanndd ttoo tthhee vvaalleennccee bbaanndd iinn ssiilliiccoonn,, bbootthh ooff tthheessee tthhiinnggss ccaann oonnllyy bbee ccoonnsseerrvveedd:: The transition also creates a quantized set of lattice vibrations, called phonons, or "heat“ .
  • 37.
    • PPhhoonnoonnss ppoosssseessssbbootthh eenneerrggyy aanndd mmoommeennttuumm.. • TThheeiirr ccrreeaattiioonn uuppoonn tthhee rreeccoommbbiinnaattiioonn ooff aann eelleeccttrroonn aanndd hhoollee aalllloowwss ffoorr ccoommpplleettee ccoonnsseerrvvaattiioonn ooff bbootthh eenneerrggyy aanndd mmoommeennttuumm.. • AAllll ooff tthhee eenneerrggyy wwhhiicchh tthhee eelleeccttrroonn ggiivveess uupp iinn ggooiinngg ffrroomm tthhee ccoonndduuccttiioonn bbaanndd ttoo tthhee vvaalleennccee bbaanndd ((11..11 eeVV)) eennddss uupp iinn pphhoonnoonnss,, wwhhiicchh iiss aannootthheerr wwaayy ooff ssaayyiinngg tthhaatt tthhee eelleeccttrroonn hheeaattss uupp tthhee ccrryyssttaall..
  • 38.
    In aa ccllaassssooff mmaatteerriiaallss ccaalllleedd ddiirreecctt bbaanndd--ggaapp sseemmiiccoonndduuccttoorrss;; »tthhee ttrraannssiittiioonn ffrroomm ccoonndduuccttiioonn bbaanndd ttoo vvaalleennccee bbaanndd iinnvvoollvveess eesssseennttiiaallllyy nnoo cchhaannggee iinn mmoommeennttuumm.. »PPhhoottoonnss,, iitt ttuurrnnss oouutt,, ppoosssseessss aa ffaaiirr aammoouunntt ooff eenneerrggyy (( sseevveerraall eeVV/pphhoottoonn iinn ssoommee ccaasseess )) bbuutt tthheeyy hhaavvee vveerryy lliittttllee mmoommeennttuumm aassssoocciiaatteedd wwiitthh tthheemm..
  • 39.
    • Thus, fora ddiirreecctt bbaanndd ggaapp mmaatteerriiaall,, tthhee eexxcceessss eenneerrggyy ooff tthhee eelleeccttrroonn--hhoollee rreeccoommbbiinnaattiioonn ccaann eeiitthheerr bbee ttaakkeenn aawwaayy aass hheeaatt,, oorr mmoorree lliikkeellyy,, aass aa pphhoottoonn ooff lliigghhtt.. • TThhiiss rraaddiiaattiivvee ttrraannssiittiioonn tthheenn ccoonnsseerrvveess eenneerrggyy aanndd mmoommeennttuumm bbyy ggiivviinngg ooffff lliigghhtt wwhheenneevveerr aann eelleeccttrroonn aanndd hhoollee rreeccoommbbiinnee.. CB VB TThhiiss ggiivveess rriissee ttoo ((ffoorr uuss)) aa nneeww ttyyppee ooff ddeevviiccee;; tthhee lliigghhtt eemmiittttiinngg ddiiooddee ((LLEEDD))..
  • 40.
    What is LED? Semiconductors bring quality to light! LED are semiconductor p-n junctions that under forward bias conditions can emit radiation by electroluminescence in the UV, visible or infrared regions of the electromagnetic spectrum. The qaunta of light energy released is approximately proportional to the band gap of the semiconductor.
  • 41.
    Getting to knowLED Advantages of Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) Longevity: The light emitting element in a diode is a small conductor chip rather than a filament which greatly extends the diode’s life in comparison to an incandescent bulb (10 000 hours life time compared to ~1000 hours for incandescence light bulb) Efficiency: Diodes emit almost no heat and run at very low amperes. Greater Light Intensity: Since each diode emits its own light Cost: Not too bad Robustness: Solid state component, not as fragile as incandescence light bulb
  • 42.
    LED chip isthe part that we shall deal with in this course
  • 43.
    Luminescence is theprocess behind light emission • Luminescence is a term used to describe the emission of radiation from a solid when the solid is supplied with some form of energy. • Electroluminescence  excitation results from the application of an electric field • In a p-n junction diode injection electroluminescence occurs resulting in light emission when the junction is forward biased
  • 44.
    PPrroodduucciinngg pphhoottoonn EElleeccttrroonnssrreeccoommbbiinnee wwiitthh hhoolleess.. EEnneerrggyy ooff pphhoottoonn iiss tthhee eenneerrggyy ooff bbaanndd ggaapp.. CB VB e-h
  • 45.
    How does itwork? P-n junction Electrical Contacts A typical LED needs aa pp--nn jjuunnccttiioonn There are a lot of electrons and holes at the junction due to excitations Electrons from n need to be injected to p to promote recombination Junction is biased to produce even more e-h and to inject electrons from n to p for recombination to happen Recombination produces light!!
  • 46.
    Injection Luminescence in LED  Under forward bias – majority carriers from both sides of the junction can cross the depletion region and entering the material at the other side.  Upon entering, the majority carriers become minority carriers  For example, electrons in n-type (majority carriers) enter the p-type to become minority carriers  The minority carriers will be larger  minority carrier injection  Minority carriers will diffuse and recombine with the majority carrier.  For example, the electrons as minority carriers in the p-region will recombine with the holes. Holes are the majority carrier in the p-region.  The recombination causes light to be emitted  Such process is termed radiative recombination.
  • 47.
    MMAATTEERRIIAALLSS FFOORR LLEEDDSS • TThhee sseemmiiccoonndduuccttoorr bbaannddggaapp eenneerrggyy ddeeffiinneess tthhee eenneerrggyy ooff tthhee eemmiitttteedd pphhoottoonnss iinn aa LLEEDD.. • TToo ffaabbrriiccaattee LLEEDDss tthhaatt ccaann eemmiitt pphhoottoonnss ffrroomm tthhee iinnffrraarreedd ttoo tthhee uullttrraavviioolleett ppaarrttss ooff tthhee ee..mm.. ssppeeccttrruumm,, tthheenn wwee mmuusstt ccoonnssiiddeerr sseevveerraall ddiiffffeerreenntt mmaatteerriiaall ssyysstteemmss.. • NNoo ssiinnggllee ssyysstteemm ccaann ssppaann tthhiiss eenneerrggyy bbaanndd aatt pprreesseenntt,, aalltthhoouugghh tthhee 33--55 nniittrriiddeess ccoommee cclloossee.. CB VB
  • 48.
    • Unfortunately, manyooff ppootteennttiiaallllllyy uusseeffuull 22--66 ggrroouupp ooff ddiirreecctt bbaanndd--ggaapp sseemmiiccoonndduuccttoorrss ((ZZnnSSee,,ZZnnTTee,,eettcc..)) ccoommee nnaattuurraallllyy ddooppeedd eeiitthheerr pp-- ttyyppee,, oorr nn--ttyyppee,, bbuutt tthheeyy ddoonn’’tt lliikkee ttoo bbee ttyyppee-- ccoonnvveerrtteedd bbyy oovveerrddooppiinngg.. • TThhee mmaatteerriiaall rreeaassoonnss bbeehhiinndd tthhiiss aarree ccoommpplliiccaatteedd aanndd nnoott eennttiirreellyy wweellll--kknnoowwnn.. • TThhee ssaammee pprroobblleemm iiss eennccoouunntteerreedd iinn tthhee 33--55 nniittrriiddeess aanndd tthheeiirr aallllooyyss IInnNN,, GGaaNN,, AAllNN,, IInnGGaaNN,, AAllGGaaNN,, aanndd IInnAAllGGaaNN.. TThhee aammaazziinngg tthhiinngg aabboouutt 33--55 nniittrriiddee aallllooyy ssyysstteemmss iiss tthhaatt aappppeeaarr ttoo bbee ddiirreecctt ggaapp tthhrroouugghhoouutt..
  • 49.
    Construction of TypicalLED Light output n Substrate Al SiO2 Electrical contacts p
  • 50.
    LED Construction Efficient light emitter is also an efficient absorbers of radiation therefore, a shallow p-n junction required.  Active materials (n and p) will be grown on a lattice matched substrate.  The p-n junction will be forward biased with contacts made by metallisation to the upper and lower surfaces.  Ought to leave the upper part ‘clear’ so photon can escape.  The silica provides passivation/device isolation and carrier confinement
  • 51.
    Efficient LED Need a p-n junction (preferably the same semiconductor material only different dopants)  Recombination must occur  Radiative transmission to give out the ‘right coloured LED’  ‘Right coloured LED’  hc/l = Ec-Ev = Eg  so choose material with the right Eg  Direct band gap semiconductors to allow efficient recombination  All photons created must be able to leave the semiconductor  Little or no reabsorption of photons
  • 52.
    Correct band gapDirect band gap Materials Requirements Material can be made p and n-type Efficient radiative pathways must exist
  • 53.
    Direct band gap Candidate Materials materials e.g. GaAs not Si  UV-ED l ~0.5-400nm Eg > 3.25eV  LED - l ~450-650nm Eg = 3.1eV to 1.6eV  IR-ED- l ~750nm- 1nm Eg = 1.65eV Readily Materials with refractive doped n or p-types index that could allow light to ‘get out’
  • 54.
    Candidate Materials GroupIII-V & Group II-VI Group II Group III Group IV Group V iii iv v ii Al Ga In N P As Periodic Table to show group III-V and II-V binaries
  • 55.
    Candidate Materials GroupIII-V & Group II-VI Group II Group III Group IV Group V iii iv v ii Al Ga In N P As Periodic Table to show group III-V and II-V binaries
  • 56.
    CCoolloorr NNaammee WWaavveelleennggtthh ((NNaannoommeetteerrss)) SSeemmiiccoonndduuccttoorr CCoommppoossiittiioonn IInnffrraarreedd 888800 GGaaAAllAAss//GGaaAAss UUllttrraa RReedd 666600 GGaaAAllAAss//GGaaAAllAAss SSuuppeerr RReedd 663333 AAllGGaaIInnPP SSuuppeerr OOrraannggee 661122 AAllGGaaIInnPP OOrraannggee 660055 GGaaAAssPP//GGaaPP YYeellllooww 558855 GGaaAAssPP//GGaaPP IInnccaannddeesscceenntt WWhhiittee 44550000KK ((CCTT)) IInnGGaaNN//SSiiCC PPaallee WWhhiittee 66550000KK ((CCTT)) IInnGGaaNN//SSiiCC CCooooll WWhhiittee 88000000KK ((CCTT)) IInnGGaaNN//SSiiCC PPuurree GGrreeeenn 555555 GGaaPP//GGaaPP SSuuppeerr BBlluuee 447700 GGaaNN//SSiiCC BBlluuee VViioolleett 443300 GGaaNN//SSiiCC UUllttrraavviioolleett 339955 IInnGGaaNN//SSiiCC
  • 57.
    Getting to knowLED Advantages of Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) Longevity: The light emitting element in a diode is a small conductor chip rather than a filament which greatly extends the diode’s life in comparison to an incandescent bulb (10 000 hours life time compared to ~1000 hours for incandescence light bulb) Efficiency: Diodes emit almost no heat and run at very low amperes. Greater Light Intensity: Since each diode emits its own light Cost: Not too bad Robustness: Solid state component, not as fragile as incandescence light bulb
  • 58.
    LED chip isthe part that we shall deal with in this course
  • 59.
    Some Types ofLEDs Bargraph 7-segment Starburst Dot matrix
  • 60.
  • 61.
    Your fancy telephone,i-pod, palm pilot and digital camera
  • 62.
  • 63.
    • What isthe word LASER stands for? • Light amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation
  • 64.
    Stimulated Emission E2 E1 hu (a) Absorption hu E2 E2 E1 E1 (b) Spontaneous emission hu In hu Out hu (c) Stimulated emission Absorption, spontaneous (random photon) emission and stimulated emission. © 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall) In stimulated emission, an incoming photon with energy hu stimulates the emission process by inducing electrons in E2 to transit down to E1. While moving down to E1, photon of the same energy hu will be emitted Resulting in 2 photons coming out of the system Photons are amplified – one incoming photon resulting in two photons coming out.
  • 65.
    Population Inversion •Non equilibrium distribution of atoms among the various energy level atomic system • To induce more atoms in E2, i.e. to create population inversion, a large amount of energy is required to excite atoms to E2 • The excitation process of atoms so N2 > N2 is called pumping • It is difficult to attain pumping when using two-level-system. • Require 3-level system instead More atoms here E2 E1 N2> N1 N2 N1 E3 E2 E1 There level system
  • 66.
    Principles of Laser E 3 E 1 hu13 E 2 Metastable state E 3 E 1 E 2 hu32 E 3 E 1 E 2 E 3 E 1 E 2 OUT hu21 hu21 Coherent photons (a) (b) (c) (d) . IN • In actual case, excite atoms from E1 to E3. • Exciting atoms from E1 to E3 optical pumping • Atoms from E3 decays rapidly to E2 emitting hu3 • If E2 is a long lived state, atoms from E2 will not decay to E1 rapidly • Condition where there are a lot of atoms in E2 population inversion achieved! i.e. between E2 and E1.
  • 67.
    Coherent Photons Production (explanation of (d)) • When one atom in E2 decays spontaneously, a random photon resulted which will induce stimulated photon from the neighbouring atoms • The photons from the neighbouring atoms will stimulate their neighbours and form avalanche of photons. • Large collection of coherent photons resulted.
  • 68.
    Laser Diode Principle • Consider a p-n junction • In order to design a laser diode, the p-n junction must be heavily doped. • In other word, the p and n materials must be degenerately doped • By degenerated doping, the Fermi level of the n-side will lies in the conduction band whereas the Fermi level in the p-region will lie in the valance band.
  • 69.
    Diode Laser Operation p+ n+ E Fn E g (a) E c E v E v Holes inVB Junction Electrons inCB Electrons E c p+ E g V n+ (b) E Fn eV E Fp Inversion region E Fp E c E c eV o •P-n junction must be degenerately doped. •Fermi level in valance band (p) and conduction band (n). •No bias, built n potential; eVo barrier to stop electron and holes movement •Forward bias, eV> Eg •Built in potential diminished to zero •Electrons and holes can diffuse to the space charge layer
  • 70.
    Application of ForwardBias • Suppose that the degenerately doped p-n junction is forward biased by a voltage greater than the band gap; eV > Eg • The separation between EFn and EFp is now the applied potential energy • The applied voltage diminished the built-in potential barrier, eVo to almost zero. • Electrons can now flow to the p-side • Holes can now flow to the n-side
  • 71.
    Population Inversion inDiode Laser hu Optical gain EFn - EFp Eg 0 Optical absorption Energy EFn Ec Ev CB VB Electrons in CB Holes in VB = Empty states Density of states EFp eV At T > 0 At T = 0 (a) (b) (a) The density of states and energy distribution of electrons and holes in the conduction and valence bands respectively at T » 0 in the SCL under forward bias such that EFn - EFp > Eg. Holes in the VB are empty states. (b) Gain vs. photon energy. © 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
  • 72.
    Population Inversion inDiode Laser Electrons in CB EFn EFp CB VB Eg Holes in VB eV EFn-EfP = eV eV > Eg eV = forward bias voltage Fwd Diode current pumping  injection pumping More electrons in the conduction band near EC Than electrons in the valance band near EV There is therefore a population inversion between energies near EC and near EV around the junction. This only achieved when degenerately doped p-n junction is forward bias with energy > Egap
  • 73.
    The Lasing Action • The population inversion region is a layer along the junction  also call inversion layer or active region • Now consider a photon with E = Eg • Obviously this photon can not excite electrons from EV since there is NO electrons there • However the photon CAN STIMULATE electron to fall down from CB to VB. • Therefore, the incoming photon stimulates emission than absorption • The active region is then said to have ‘optical gain’ since the incoming photon has the ability to cause emission rather than being absorbed.
  • 74.
    Pumping Mechanism in Laser Diode • It is obvious that the population inversion between energies near EC and those near EV occurs by injection of large charge carrier across the junction by forward biasing the junction. • Therefore the pumping mechanism is FORWARD DIODE CURRENT  Injection pumping
  • 75.
    For Successful LasingAction: 1. Optical Gain (not absorb) Achieved by population inversion 2. Optical Feedback Achieved by device configuration Needed to increase the total optical amplification by making photons pass through the gain region multiple times Insert 2 mirrors at each end of laser This is term an oscillator cavity or Fabry Perot cavity Mirrors are partly transmitted and party reflected
  • 76.
  • 77.
    Optical Power inLaser is Very High due to Optical Feedback and Higher Forward Bias Current. Threshold current density
  • 78.
    Direct Gap DiodeLaser • Direct band gap  high probability of electrons-holes recombination  radioactively • The recombination radiation may interact with the holes in the valance band and being absorbed or interact with the electrons in the conduction band thereby stimulating the production of further photons of the same frequency  stimulated emission
  • 79.
  • 80.
  • 81.
    InGaN and AlGaN • InGaN and AlGaN have been produced over the entire composition range between their component binaries; InN, GaN, AlN • InAlN is less explored. • GaN and AlN are fairly well lattice-matched to SiC substrates, • SiC has substrate is better as it can be doped (dopability) and high thermal conductivity relative to more commonly used Al2O3 substrates. • AlN and GaN can be used for high temperature application due to wide bandgaps and low intrinsic carrier concentrations.
  • 82.