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[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],OBJECTIVES: After studying Chapter 38, the reader should be able to: Continued
[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],OBJECTIVES: After studying Chapter 38, the reader should be able to:
[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],KEY TERMS: Continued
[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],KEY TERMS: Continued
[object Object],[object Object],KEY TERMS:
[object Object],[object Object]
SEMICONDUCTORS ,[object Object],Continued
[object Object],Continued
N-TYPE MATERIAL ,[object Object],Continued
Figure 38–1  N-type material. Silicon (Si) doped with a material (such as phosphorus) with five electrons in the outer orbit results in an extra free electron.
P-TYPE MATERIAL ,[object Object],Continued
Figure 38–2  P-type material. Silicon (Si) doped with a material [such as boron (B)] with three electrons in the outer orbit results in a hole capable of attracting an electron.
HOW HOLES MOVE ,[object Object],Continued
Figure 38–3  Unlike charges attract and the current carriers (electrons and holes) move toward the junction.
SUMMARY OF SEMICONDUCTORS Continued ,[object Object],[object Object]
[object Object],[object Object]
Figure 38–4  A diode is a component with P- and N-type material together. The negative electrode is called the cathode and the positive electrode is called the anode. ,[object Object],Continued DIODES The positive electrode, or electrical connection, is called the  anode , the negative electrode is the  cathode .  The point where the two types of materials join is called the  junction .
[object Object],Figure 38–5  Diode connected to a battery with correct polarity ( to  and  to ). Current flows through the diode. This condition is called forward bias. Continued Current would flow through the diode with low resistance. This condition is called  forward bias .
[object Object],Continued This condition is called  reverse bias . Figure 38–6  Diode connected with reversed polarity. No current flows across the junction between the P-type and N-type material. This connection is called reverse bias.
Figure 38–7  Diode symbol and electrode names. ,[object Object]
Electronics usually means that solid-state devices are used in the electrical circuits. Electricity as used in automotive applications usually means electrical current flow through resistance and loads without the use of diodes, transistors, or other electronic devices. What is the Difference Between Electricity and Electronics?
ZENER DIODES ,[object Object],Continued
Figure 38–8  A zener diode blocks current flow until a certain voltage is reached, then it permits current to flow.
[object Object],A common term heard in the electronic and computer industry is  burn in .   Burn in means to operate an electronic device, such as a computer, for a period from several hours to several days. “ Burn-In” to Be Sure What does all of this information mean to the average person? When purchasing a personal or business computer, have the computer burned in before delivery. This step helps ensure all the circuits have survived infancy and that the chances of chip failure are greatly reduced. Display model sound or television equipment may be a good value, because during its operation as a display model, it has been burned in.  The automotive service technician should be aware that if a replacement electronic device fails shortly after installation, the problem might be a case of early electronic failure.
CLAMPING DIODES ,[object Object],[object Object],Continued
Figure 38–9  (a) Notice that when the coil is being energized, the diode is reverse biased and the current is blocked from passing through the diode. The current flows through the coil in the normal direction.  Continued (a) (b) Figure 38–9  (b) When the switch is opened, the magnetic field surrounding the coil collapses, producing a high-voltage surge in the reverse polarity of the applied voltage. This voltage surge forward biases the diode, and the surge is dissipated harmlessly back through the windings of the coil.
Figure 38–10 Spike protection diodes are commonly used in computer-controlled circuits to prevent damaging high-voltage surges that occur anytime current flowing through a coil is stopped. ,[object Object],Because most automotive circuits eventually are electrically connected to each other in parallel, a high-voltage surge anywhere in the vehicle could damage electronic components in other circuits.
ZENER DIODE DESPIKING PROTECTION ,[object Object],NOTE:   Circuits most likely affected by high-voltage surge on diode failure are circuits controlling operation of the AC compressor clutch, any component using a coil, such as blower motors and climate control units. Most commonly used in electronic fuel-injection circuits that control the firing of the injectors. If clamping diodes were used in parallel with the injection coil, the resulting clamping action would tend to delay the closing of the fuel-injector nozzle.  A zener diode is commonly used to clamp only the higher-voltage portion of the resulting voltage spike without affecting the operation of the injector. See Figure 38–11. Continued
Figure 38–11  A zener diode is commonly used inside automotive computers to protect delicate electronic circuits from high-voltage spikes. A 35-volt zener diode will conduct any voltage spike resulting from the discharge of a coil safely to ground through a current-limiting resistor in series with the zener diode.
DESPIKING PROTECTIVE RESISTORS ,[object Object],Continued Figure 38–12  A despiking resistor is used in many automotive applications to help prevent harmful high-voltage surges from being created when the magnetic field surrounding a coil collapses when the coil circuit is opened.
[object Object],[object Object],Resistors are often preferred for two reasons: Resistors on coils are often used in climate-control circuit solenoids to control vacuum to the various air management system doors as well as other electronically controlled applications.
DIODE RATINGS ,[object Object],Continued
[object Object],Continued 1N 4001-50 V PIV 1N 4002-100 V PIV 1N 4003-200 V PIV 1N 4004-400 V PIV 1N 4005-600 V PIV The third rating ( 1N 4003-200 V PIV ) is most commonly used for automotive applications. The “ 1N ” means that the diode has  one   P-N  junction. A higher-rating diode can be used with no problems. Never substitute a  lower -rated diode than is specified.
[object Object],NOTE:   When diodes are tested using a digital multimeter, the meter will display the voltage drop across the P-N junction (about 0.5 to 0.7 volts) when the meter is set to the  diode check  position.
LIGHT-EMITTING DIODES ,[object Object],Light-emitting diodes  ( LEDs ) radiate light when current flows through the diode in the forward-bias direction, ranging between 1.5 and 2.2 volts.  Figure 38–13 A typical light-emitting diode (LED). This particular LED is designed with a built-in resistor so that 12 volts DC may be applied directly to the leads without an external resistor. Normally a 300- to 500--watt resistor is required to be attached in series with the LED to control current flow to about 0.020 A (20 mA) or damage to the P-N junction can occur. Continued
[object Object],An LED contains a chip that houses P-type and N-type materials. The junction between these regions acts as a barrier to the flow of electrons between the two materials. When a voltage of 1.5 to 2.2 volts of the correct polarity is applied, current will flow across the junction. As the electrons enter the P-type material, it combines with the holes in the material and releases energy in the form of light (called  photons ). The amount and color the light produces depends on materials used in the creation of the semiconductor material. How Does an LED Emit Light? Continued
[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],A resistor  must  be connected in series with every diode (including LEDs) to control current flow across the P-N junction. This protection should include the following:
PHOTODIODES ,[object Object],Continued Figure 38–14  Typical photodiodes. Photodiodes  are specially constructed to respond to various wavelengths of light with a “window” built into the housing.
[object Object],Figure 38–15 Symbol for a photodiode. The arrows represent light striking the P-N junction of the photodiode. Continued
PHOTORESISTORS ,[object Object],Continued Figure 38–16 Either symbol may be used to represent a photoresistor. Dark   =  high  resistance Light  =  low  resistance Because resistance is reduced when the photoresistor is exposed to light, it can be used to control headlight dimmer relays.  It is also useful in many other nonautomotive applications.
VARISTORS ,[object Object],Continued
SILICON-CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS ,[object Object],Figure 38–17  Symbol and terminal identification of an SCR. An SCR is a semiconductor device that looks like two diodes connected end-to-end.  Positive voltage connected to the  gate  allows current flow from anode to cathode. Typical voltage drop is 1.2 volts (double of a typical diode—0.6 volt). Continued
[object Object],Continued
Figure 38–18  Wiring diagram for a CHMSL.
THERMISTORS ,[object Object],Continued
Figure 38–19 Symbols used to represent a thermistor. ,[object Object]
[object Object],Figure 38–20 This rectifier bridge contains six diodes; three on each side and mounted in an aluminum-finned unit to help keep the diode cool during generator (alternator) operation. RECTIFIER BRIDGES A  rectifier bridge  is a group of diodes used to change AC current into DC, used in alternators to rectify current produced in the stator (stationary windings) of the generator (alternator).  These rectifier bridges contain six diodes: one pair for each of the three stator windings.
TRANSISTORS ,[object Object],Continued ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],The word  transistor,  from the words  transfer  and  resistor,  is used to describe transfer of current across a resistor. A transistor is made of three alternating sections or layers of  P - and  N -type material. This type is a  bipolar transistor . A transistor with P-type material on each end, with N-type in the center, is a  PNP transistor   A type with the exact opposite arrangement, is called an  NPN transistor .
Figure 38–21 Transistor symbols and construction. ,[object Object],Continued
HOW A TRANSISTOR WORKS ,[object Object],Continued
Figure 38–22  Basic transistor operation. A small current flowing through the base and emitter of the transistor turns on the transistor and permits a higher-amperage current to flow from the collector and the emitter. ,[object Object],The control current must be high enough to switch the transistor on or off.  (This  threshold voltage , must be above about 0.3 volt for germanium and 0.6 silicon transistors.)
INTEGRATED CIRCUITS ,[object Object],Continued Discrete (individual) diodes, transistors, and other semiconductor devices were often used to construct early electronic ignition and electronic voltage regulators. Newer-style electronic devices use the same components, but they are now combined (integrated) into one group of circuits, and are thus called an  integrated circuit  ( IC ). Integrated circuits are usually encased in a plastic housing called a CHIP with two rows of inline pins, this arrangement is called the  dual inline pins  ( DIP ) chips. Most computer circuits are housed as an integrated circuit in a DIP chip. See Figure 38-23.
Figure 38–23  A typical automotive computer with the case removed to show all of the various electronic devices and integrated circuits (ICs). The large red and orange devices are ceramic capacitors.
PHOTOTRANSISTORS ,[object Object],Figure 38–24  Symbols for a phototransistor. (a) uses the line for the base; (b) does not. A phototransistor is an NPN transistor that has a large exposed base area to permit light to act as the control for the transistor.  A phototransistor may or may not have a base lead. If not, they have only a collector and emitter lead.  When the phototransistor is connected to a powered circuit, the light intensity is amplified by the gain of the transistor.
SOLAR CELLS ,[object Object]
HOW TO TEST DIODES AND TRANSISTORS ,[object Object],Continued ,[object Object],[object Object]
Figure 38–25  To check a diode, select “diode check” on a digital multimeter. The display will indicate the voltage drop (difference) between the meter leads. The meter itself applies a low voltage signal (usually about 3 volts) and displays the difference on the display. (a) When the diode is forward biased, the meter should display a voltage between 0.500 and 0.700 V (500 mV to 700 mV). (b) When the meter leads are reversed, the meter should read OL (over limit) because the diode is reverse biased and blocking current flow. (a) (b)
ELECTRONIC COMPONENT FAILURE CAUSES ,[object Object],Continued
[object Object],Continued
[object Object]
ELECTROSTATIC DISCHARGE ,[object Object],Continued ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],Although these voltages seem high, the current, in amperes, is extremely low. However, sensitive electronic components such as vehicle computers, radios, and instrument panel clusters can be ruined if exposed to as little as 30 volts.
[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],HINT:   When cleaning electronic contacts, use a pencil eraser. This cleans the contacts without harming the thin protective coating used on most electronic terminals.
A blinking (flashing) LED consumes only about 5 milliamperes (5/1,000 of one ampere or 0.005 A). Most alarm systems use a blinking red LED to indicate that the system is armed. A fake alarm indicator is easy to make and install. When the ignition is turned off, the power flows through the LED to ground and the LED flashes. To prevent distraction during driving, the LED goes  out whenever the ignition is on. Therefore, this fake theft deterrent is “auto setting” and no other action is required to activate it when you leave your vehicle except to turn off the ignition and remove the key as usual. Blinking LED Theft Deterrent - Part 1
[object Object],Blinking LED Theft Deterrent - Part 2  Figure 38–26 Schematic for a blinking LED theft deterrent.
SUMMARY ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],Continued
SUMMARY ,[object Object],[object Object],( cont. )
end

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Chapter 38

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  • 11. Figure 38–1 N-type material. Silicon (Si) doped with a material (such as phosphorus) with five electrons in the outer orbit results in an extra free electron.
  • 12.
  • 13. Figure 38–2 P-type material. Silicon (Si) doped with a material [such as boron (B)] with three electrons in the outer orbit results in a hole capable of attracting an electron.
  • 14.
  • 15. Figure 38–3 Unlike charges attract and the current carriers (electrons and holes) move toward the junction.
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  • 18.
  • 19.
  • 20.
  • 21.
  • 22. Electronics usually means that solid-state devices are used in the electrical circuits. Electricity as used in automotive applications usually means electrical current flow through resistance and loads without the use of diodes, transistors, or other electronic devices. What is the Difference Between Electricity and Electronics?
  • 23.
  • 24. Figure 38–8 A zener diode blocks current flow until a certain voltage is reached, then it permits current to flow.
  • 25.
  • 26.
  • 27. Figure 38–9 (a) Notice that when the coil is being energized, the diode is reverse biased and the current is blocked from passing through the diode. The current flows through the coil in the normal direction. Continued (a) (b) Figure 38–9 (b) When the switch is opened, the magnetic field surrounding the coil collapses, producing a high-voltage surge in the reverse polarity of the applied voltage. This voltage surge forward biases the diode, and the surge is dissipated harmlessly back through the windings of the coil.
  • 28.
  • 29.
  • 30. Figure 38–11 A zener diode is commonly used inside automotive computers to protect delicate electronic circuits from high-voltage spikes. A 35-volt zener diode will conduct any voltage spike resulting from the discharge of a coil safely to ground through a current-limiting resistor in series with the zener diode.
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  • 45. Figure 38–18 Wiring diagram for a CHMSL.
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  • 54. Figure 38–23 A typical automotive computer with the case removed to show all of the various electronic devices and integrated circuits (ICs). The large red and orange devices are ceramic capacitors.
  • 55.
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  • 57.
  • 58. Figure 38–25 To check a diode, select “diode check” on a digital multimeter. The display will indicate the voltage drop (difference) between the meter leads. The meter itself applies a low voltage signal (usually about 3 volts) and displays the difference on the display. (a) When the diode is forward biased, the meter should display a voltage between 0.500 and 0.700 V (500 mV to 700 mV). (b) When the meter leads are reversed, the meter should read OL (over limit) because the diode is reverse biased and blocking current flow. (a) (b)
  • 59.
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  • 63.
  • 64. A blinking (flashing) LED consumes only about 5 milliamperes (5/1,000 of one ampere or 0.005 A). Most alarm systems use a blinking red LED to indicate that the system is armed. A fake alarm indicator is easy to make and install. When the ignition is turned off, the power flows through the LED to ground and the LED flashes. To prevent distraction during driving, the LED goes out whenever the ignition is on. Therefore, this fake theft deterrent is “auto setting” and no other action is required to activate it when you leave your vehicle except to turn off the ignition and remove the key as usual. Blinking LED Theft Deterrent - Part 1
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  • 68. end