Second Language Acquisition (SLA) refers to the process of learning a second language. SLA researchers study how people develop proficiency in a non-native language, both inside and outside the classroom, with the goal of describing and explaining the acquisition process. Key aspects of SLA theory include developmental patterns in learner language, the influence of internal and external factors, and hypotheses about the natural order and mechanisms of acquisition. Prominent hypotheses proposed to explain SLA include Krashen's Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis and Natural Order Hypothesis.

1. Second LanguageSecond Language
Acquisition TheoryAcquisition Theory

2. What is SLA ?What is SLA ?
 Second Language Acquisition is theSecond Language Acquisition is the
processes by which people developprocesses by which people develop
proficiency in a second or foreign language.proficiency in a second or foreign language.
These processes are often investigated withThese processes are often investigated with
the expectation that information about themthe expectation that information about them
may be useful in language teachingmay be useful in language teaching

3. The term SLA has been used particularlyThe term SLA has been used particularly
in the USA by researchers interested in:in the USA by researchers interested in:
. 1.Longitudinal studies and case studies of the. 1.Longitudinal studies and case studies of the
development of syntax and phonology in seconddevelopment of syntax and phonology in second
and foreign language learners.and foreign language learners.
2. Analysis of spoken and written discourse of2. Analysis of spoken and written discourse of
second and foreign language learners.second and foreign language learners.
3. The study of other aspects of language3. The study of other aspects of language
developmentdevelopment

4. Another definitionAnother definition
 The way in which people learn a languageThe way in which people learn a language
other than their mother tongue, inside asother than their mother tongue, inside as
well outside a classroomwell outside a classroom

5. The goalsThe goals
 To describe how L2 acquisition proceedsTo describe how L2 acquisition proceeds
and to explain the process, and why someand to explain the process, and why some
learners seem to be better at it than otherslearners seem to be better at it than others

6. To describe the L2 acquisitionTo describe the L2 acquisition
- the language that learners produce when- the language that learners produce when
they use L2 in speech and writing (based onthey use L2 in speech and writing (based on
the samples of learner language)the samples of learner language)
- The formal features of language, not the- The formal features of language, not the
communicative aspects of languagecommunicative aspects of language
development, like development ofdevelopment, like development of
pronunciationpronunciation

7. To explain L2 acquisitionTo explain L2 acquisition
-- Identify external and internal factors thatIdentify external and internal factors that
account for why ones acquire an L2 in theaccount for why ones acquire an L2 in the
way they do.way they do.
- External factors may be social milieu andExternal factors may be social milieu and
input they receive.input they receive.

8. External factorsExternal factors
 Social milieu is the environment whereSocial milieu is the environment where
learning takes place which influences thelearning takes place which influences the
opportunities that learners have to hear andopportunities that learners have to hear and
speak the language, and the attitude theyspeak the language, and the attitude they
develop towards it.develop towards it.
 Input the learners receive, the samples ofInput the learners receive, the samples of
language to which a learner is exposed, belanguage to which a learner is exposed, be
it simplified or authentic lang of the nativeit simplified or authentic lang of the native
speakers.speakers.

9. Internal factorsInternal factors
 Cognitive mechanism which enablesCognitive mechanism which enables
learners to extract info.learners to extract info.
 Experience in learning L1,Experience in learning L1,
 the general knowledge about the world tothe general knowledge about the world to
help understand L2 inputhelp understand L2 input
 Communicative strategies that help to makeCommunicative strategies that help to make
effective use of learners L2 knowledgeeffective use of learners L2 knowledge
 Language aptitudeLanguage aptitude

10. The Nature of Learner LanguageThe Nature of Learner Language
 Errors versus mistakesErrors versus mistakes
 Errors reflect gaps in a learner’s knowledge;Errors reflect gaps in a learner’s knowledge;
they occur because the learner does notthey occur because the learner does not
know what is correct. They are systematicknow what is correct. They are systematic
and universal.and universal.
 Mistakes reflect occasional lapses inMistakes reflect occasional lapses in
performance; they occur because theperformance; they occur because the
learner is unable to perform what s/helearner is unable to perform what s/he
knowsknows

11. Sources of errorsSources of errors
 They have different sources. Some areThey have different sources. Some are
universal reflecting learners’ attempts touniversal reflecting learners’ attempts to
make the task of learning and using the L2make the task of learning and using the L2
simpler, such as omission,simpler, such as omission,
overgeneralization, and transfer.overgeneralization, and transfer.
 Errors of omission and overgeneralizationErrors of omission and overgeneralization
are common in the speech of all L2are common in the speech of all L2
regardless of the L1regardless of the L1

12. continuedcontinued
 Omission: leaving out the articlesOmission: leaving out the articles the andand aa
and leave the -s off the plural
nouns
 Overgeneralization: overgeneralize the
forms that they find easy to learn
and process, such as eated for
ate.
 Transfer: the transfer of L1 knowledge to
learn L2. such as car red

13. Developmental patterns of SLADevelopmental patterns of SLA
 Children undergo a silent period, that is noChildren undergo a silent period, that is no
attempt to say anything but mentally activeattempt to say anything but mentally active
to learn through listening to and reading . Itto learn through listening to and reading . It
may be preparation for a later production.may be preparation for a later production.
 Begin to speak in L2, in which their speechBegin to speak in L2, in which their speech
has two characteristics, that is, containinghas two characteristics, that is, containing
formulaic chunks and propositionalformulaic chunks and propositional
simplificationsimplification

14. Cont’dCont’d
Formulaic chunks, such asFormulaic chunks, such as how do you dohow do you do?,?,
I don’t know, my name is …..I don’t know, my name is …..etc.etc.
Propositional simplifications : learners find itPropositional simplifications : learners find it
difficult to speak in full sentence so theydifficult to speak in full sentence so they
leave words out, like:leave words out, like: Me no blueMe no blue
 Learning grammatical structures of the L2.Learning grammatical structures of the L2.
Do learners acquire the grammaticalDo learners acquire the grammatical
structures of the L2 in a definite orderstructures of the L2 in a definite order
(acquisition order),(acquisition order),

15. Cont’dCont’d
 Do learners learn a particular structure in aDo learners learn a particular structure in a
single step or do they proceed through asingle step or do they proceed through a
number of interim stages before they masternumber of interim stages before they master
it? (sequence of acquisition)it? (sequence of acquisition)

24. The Theoretical Model of SLA,The Theoretical Model of SLA,
the so calledthe so called
The Five Hypothesis.The Five Hypothesis.
1.1. The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis.The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis.
2.2. The Natural Order Hypothesis.The Natural Order Hypothesis.
3.3. The Monitor Hypothesis.The Monitor Hypothesis.
4.4. The Input Hypothesis.The Input Hypothesis.
5.5. The Affective Filter HypothesisThe Affective Filter Hypothesis

25. Why hypotheses?Why hypotheses?
 Guesses as to how language acquisitionGuesses as to how language acquisition
works.works.
 Hypotheses may change or be rejected asHypotheses may change or be rejected as
research finds out more contra evidences orresearch finds out more contra evidences or
 if observations or data prove differentlyif observations or data prove differently

26. 1. The Acquisition-Learning1. The Acquisition-Learning
HypothesisHypothesis
 It claims that adults have two distinct ways ofIt claims that adults have two distinct ways of
developing competence in second language, thatdeveloping competence in second language, that
is, viais, via
1.1. acquisitionacquisition
2.2. learninglearning
 What are the differences between them?What are the differences between them?

27. Acquisition ?Acquisition ?
1.1. Similar to how child learn first language.Similar to how child learn first language.
2.2. Picking up a language.Picking up a language.
3.3. SubsconsciousSubsconscious
4.4. Implicit knowledgeImplicit knowledge
5.5. Formal teaching does not helpFormal teaching does not help

28. Learning ?Learning ?
1.1. Formal knowledge of language.Formal knowledge of language.
2.2. Knowing about languageKnowing about language
3.3. ConsciousConscious
4.4. Explicit knowledgeExplicit knowledge
5.5. Formal teaching helpsFormal teaching helps

29. 2. The Natural Order Hypothesis2. The Natural Order Hypothesis
 It claims thatIt claims that
1.1. Grammatical structures are acquired (notGrammatical structures are acquired (not
necessarily) in a predictable order.necessarily) in a predictable order.
2.2. Every acquirer will not acquire grammaticalEvery acquirer will not acquire grammatical
structures in the exact order.structures in the exact order.
3.3. Certain structures tend to be acquired early andCertain structures tend to be acquired early and
others late.others late.
4.4. There is the possibility that structures may beThere is the possibility that structures may be
acquired in group.acquired in group.

30. There exists a natural order of the acquisitionThere exists a natural order of the acquisition
of English morphology for children acquiringof English morphology for children acquiring
English as a first language.English as a first language.
Brown discovered children acquiring certainBrown discovered children acquiring certain
grammatical morpheme or function wordsgrammatical morpheme or function words
relatively earlier and others relatively late withrelatively earlier and others relatively late with
some considerations on individual variation.some considerations on individual variation.
 ExamplesExamples
-ing (the progressive tense marker) and –s (the-ing (the progressive tense marker) and –s (the
plural) are acquired earlier, whileplural) are acquired earlier, while
-s (the 3-s (the 3rdrd
person sing.’he goes….’) and ‘s (theperson sing.’he goes….’) and ‘s (the
possessive marker) are acquired late.possessive marker) are acquired late.

31. Similar order of acquisition of grammaticalSimilar order of acquisition of grammatical
morphemes for English as a secondmorphemes for English as a second
language (children and adults) is alsolanguage (children and adults) is also
found by other researchersfound by other researchers

32. Average order of acquisition of grammatical morphemes forAverage order of acquisition of grammatical morphemes for
English as a Second LanguageEnglish as a Second Language
(adults and children)(adults and children)
Progressive (-ing)Progressive (-ing)
PluralPlural
Copula (to be)Copula (to be)
AuxiliaryAuxiliary
ArticleArticle
Irregular PastIrregular Past
Regular PastRegular Past
33rdrd
Singular (-s)Singular (-s)
PossessivePossessive

33. 3. The Monitor Hypothesis3. The Monitor Hypothesis
 It claims thatIt claims that
1.1. Conscious learning has an extremelyConscious learning has an extremely
limited function in adult 2limited function in adult 2ndnd
languagelanguage
performance: it can only be used as aperformance: it can only be used as a
monitor or an editor.monitor or an editor.
2.2. When we produce utterances in 2When we produce utterances in 2ndnd
language, the utterance is initiated by thelanguage, the utterance is initiated by the
acquired system and our consciousacquired system and our conscious
learning only comes into play laterlearning only comes into play later

34. 3. We use the monitor to make3. We use the monitor to make changes in ourchanges in our
utterances only after the utterance has beenutterances only after the utterance has been
generated by the acquired system. It maygenerated by the acquired system. It may
happen before we actually speak or write or ithappen before we actually speak or write or it
may happen after.may happen after.
4. Our fluency in production is hypothesized to4. Our fluency in production is hypothesized to
come from what we have picked up, what wecome from what we have picked up, what we
have acquired in natural communicativehave acquired in natural communicative
situationssituations

35. Three requirements to be satisfied forrequirements to be satisfied for
using the Monitorusing the Monitor
1. The performer has to have enough
time. (taking time to think about the rules disturb
communication)
2. The performer has to think about
correctness or be focused on form. (we
may be more concerned with what we are saying
and not how we are saying it).
3. The performer has to know the rules.

36. 4. The Input Hypothesis4. The Input Hypothesis
 It claims thatIt claims that
1.1. We acquire language by understanding input,We acquire language by understanding input,
that is a little beyond our level of competencethat is a little beyond our level of competence
2.2. Listening comprehension and reading are ofListening comprehension and reading are of
primary importance in the language program,primary importance in the language program,
and that the ability to speak or write fluentlyand that the ability to speak or write fluently
comes on its own with time.comes on its own with time.
3.3. We use meanings to help us acquire language.We use meanings to help us acquire language.
ESL teachers do this by adding visual aids andESL teachers do this by adding visual aids and
by using extra linguistic context.by using extra linguistic context.

37. 44. In order to progress to the next stages in the. In order to progress to the next stages in the
acquisition of the target language, the acquirersacquisition of the target language, the acquirers
need to understand input language that includesneed to understand input language that includes
a structure that is part of the next stage. Fora structure that is part of the next stage. For
example, if the learners are up to the 3example, if the learners are up to the 3rdrd
personperson
singular morpheme (-s) in English, they can onlysingular morpheme (-s) in English, they can only
acquire this morpheme if they hear or readacquire this morpheme if they hear or read
messages that utilize this structure andmessages that utilize this structure and
understand their meanings.understand their meanings.

38. 5. An acquirer can move from a stage i (the
acquirer’s level competence) to a stage
i+1(the stage immediately following i along
some natural order) by understanding
language containing i+1.
If an English acquirer has acquired –ing,If an English acquirer has acquired –ing,
plural and copula, and is ready to acquireplural and copula, and is ready to acquire
auxiliary and article , the teacher needs notauxiliary and article , the teacher needs not
worry about providing auxiliary and article inworry about providing auxiliary and article in
the input.the input.

39. But teacher should make sure that students
understand what is being said or what they are
reading. When this happens, when the input is
understood, if there is enough input, i+1 will usually
be covered automatically.
How do acquirers understand language thatHow do acquirers understand language that
contains structures that they have not acquired?contains structures that they have not acquired?
They acquired it through context and extraThey acquired it through context and extra
linguistic information. Caretakers provide thislinguistic information. Caretakers provide this
context for young children by restricting their talkcontext for young children by restricting their talk
to theto the here and nowhere and now, and to what is to child’s, and to what is to child’s
domain at the momentdomain at the moment

40. The property of the caretaker speechThe property of the caretaker speech
1.1. It is motivated by the caretaker’s desire to beIt is motivated by the caretaker’s desire to be
understood.understood. Caretakers modify their language inCaretakers modify their language in
order to communicate, not teach languageorder to communicate, not teach language..
2.2. It is not structurally simpler than the languageIt is not structurally simpler than the language
adults use with each other.adults use with each other.
3. It is about the3. It is about the here and nowhere and now

41. The description of the caretaker speech fits theThe description of the caretaker speech fits the
input hypothesis: caretakers teach language byinput hypothesis: caretakers teach language by
altering their language to children so that they will bealtering their language to children so that they will be
understoodunderstood..
 Another form of caretaker speech is foreigner talkAnother form of caretaker speech is foreigner talk
which is the modifications native speakers makewhich is the modifications native speakers make
when talking to non-native speakers.when talking to non-native speakers.
 Teacher talk is foreigner talk in the secondTeacher talk is foreigner talk in the second
language classroom.language classroom.

42. Another form of simple input available to the 2Another form of simple input available to the 2ndnd
languagelanguage
acquirers isacquirers is interlanguageinterlanguage talk which is the speech of othertalk which is the speech of other
22ndnd
language acquirers in which they use some aspects oflanguage acquirers in which they use some aspects of
their 1their 1stst
language into 2language into 2ndnd
language.language.
 Silent period is the period during which acquirersSilent period is the period during which acquirers
build up competence by active listening via input.build up competence by active listening via input.

43. 1.1. Relates to acquisition, not learning.Relates to acquisition, not learning.
2. We acquire by understanding language a bit2. We acquire by understanding language a bit
beyond our current level of competence. This isbeyond our current level of competence. This is
done with the help of context.done with the help of context.
 Major points in the Input HypothesisMajor points in the Input Hypothesis

44. 3. Spoken fluency emerges gradually, and is not3. Spoken fluency emerges gradually, and is not
taught directly.taught directly.
4.4. When caretakers talk to acquirers so thatWhen caretakers talk to acquirers so that
acquirers understand the message, inputacquirers understand the message, input
automatically contains i+1, the grammaticalautomatically contains i+1, the grammatical
structures the acquire is ready to acquire.structures the acquire is ready to acquire.

45. 5. The Affective Filter.5. The Affective Filter.
 It states thatIt states that
1.1. Attitudinal variables relating to success inAttitudinal variables relating to success in
22ndnd
language acquisition generally relate tolanguage acquisition generally relate to
subconcious language languagesubconcious language language
acquisition (but not necessarily toacquisition (but not necessarily to
language learning)language learning)
2.2. A lower affective filter means theA lower affective filter means the
performer is more open to the input andperformer is more open to the input and
that input strikes deeper.that input strikes deeper.

46. Attitudinal variables have two effects:Attitudinal variables have two effects:
 Attitudinal variables have two effects:Attitudinal variables have two effects:
1.1. They actually encourage input; people who areThey actually encourage input; people who are
motivated and who have a positive self imagemotivated and who have a positive self image
will seek and obtain more input.will seek and obtain more input.
2.2. They contribute to a lower filter, given the twoThey contribute to a lower filter, given the two
acquirers with the exact same input, the one withacquirers with the exact same input, the one with
a lower filter will acquire more.a lower filter will acquire more.

47. This effect of great importance to the acquirerThis effect of great importance to the acquirer
in a classroom setting which implies that ourin a classroom setting which implies that our
pedagogical goals should not only includepedagogical goals should not only include
supplying optimal input, but also creating asupplying optimal input, but also creating a
situation that promotes a low filtersituation that promotes a low filter

48. Assignment 2.
 Each of the Monitor Model hypotheses has
problems in it. Find out in any related
literature the problems with each
hypothesis. You just need to show one of
them for any hypothesis.

49.  Assignment 1Assignment 1
 Discuss the distinction between SLA and SecondDiscuss the distinction between SLA and Second
Language Pedagogy as described in chapter 1.Language Pedagogy as described in chapter 1.
Take the position that they are fundamentallyTake the position that they are fundamentally
different. How would you defend this position?different. How would you defend this position?
Then, take the opposite position.Then, take the opposite position.
 Consider how this might affect such linguisticConsider how this might affect such linguistic
areas as phonology, syntax, morphology,areas as phonology, syntax, morphology,
semantics and pragmatics.semantics and pragmatics.

50. The role of the Native LanguageThe role of the Native Language
 1. Language Transfer1. Language Transfer
– The carrying over the learned behavior fromThe carrying over the learned behavior from
one situation to another or learning of task Aone situation to another or learning of task A
affect the learning of task Baffect the learning of task B
– It is assumed that the learners rely much onIt is assumed that the learners rely much on
their native language in learning secondtheir native language in learning second
language. Robert Lado (1957) states thatlanguage. Robert Lado (1957) states that
individuals tend to transfer the forms andindividuals tend to transfer the forms and
meanings , and the distribution of forms andmeanings , and the distribution of forms and
meanings of their native language and culturemeanings of their native language and culture
to the foreign language and cultureto the foreign language and culture

51. Two types of transfer: positiveTwo types of transfer: positive
transfer (facilitation) and negativetransfer (facilitation) and negative
transfer (interference)transfer (interference)
 1. Positive transfer (faciltation).1. Positive transfer (faciltation).
– Learning in one situation which helps orLearning in one situation which helps or
facilitates learning in another later situation.facilitates learning in another later situation.
2. Negative transfer (interference).2. Negative transfer (interference).
learning in one situation which interferes withlearning in one situation which interferes with
learning another later situation.learning another later situation.

52. Two types of interference:Two types of interference:
retroactive and proactiveretroactive and proactive
interferenceinterference
 1. Retroactive inhibition (interference)1. Retroactive inhibition (interference)
– the effect of later learning on earlier learning.the effect of later learning on earlier learning.
For example: children learning English mayFor example: children learning English may
learn irregular past tense forms, such as went,learn irregular past tense forms, such as went,
saw. Later, when they begin to leran the regularsaw. Later, when they begin to leran the regular
–ed past tense iflection, they may stop using–ed past tense iflection, they may stop using
went and saw, and produce goed and seed.went and saw, and produce goed and seed.

53. 2. Proactive inhibition/2. Proactive inhibition/
interferenceinterference
the interfering effect of earlier learning on laterthe interfering effect of earlier learning on later
learning. For example: if a learner first learns how tolearning. For example: if a learner first learns how to
produce questions which require auxiliary verbproduce questions which require auxiliary verb
inversion (I can go – Can I go?) this may interfereinversion (I can go – Can I go?) this may interfere
with the learning of patterns where auxiliarywith the learning of patterns where auxiliary
inversion is not required. The learner may write: Iinversion is not required. The learner may write: I
don’t know where can I find it, instead of I don’tdon’t know where can I find it, instead of I don’t
know where I can find it.know where I can find it.

54. Contrastive Analysis.Contrastive Analysis.
The comparison of the linguistic systems of twoThe comparison of the linguistic systems of two
languages, such as the sound systems orgrammarlanguages, such as the sound systems orgrammar
systems.CA was developed and practiced in thesystems.CA was developed and practiced in the
1950s nand 1960s as an application of Structural1950s nand 1960s as an application of Structural
linguisticslinguistics
It is based on the following assumptions:It is based on the following assumptions:
1. the main difficulties in learning a new language1. the main difficulties in learning a new language
are caused by injterference from the first language.are caused by injterference from the first language.
2. these difficulties can be predicted by contrastive2. these difficulties can be predicted by contrastive
analysis.analysis.
3. teaching materials can make use of contrastive3. teaching materials can make use of contrastive
analysis to reduce the effects of interference.analysis to reduce the effects of interference.

55. Error AnalysisError Analysis
The study and analysis of the errors made byThe study and analysis of the errors made by
second language learners.second language learners.
Error analysis may be carried out in order toError analysis may be carried out in order to
1. identify strategies which learners use in language1. identify strategies which learners use in language
learninglearning
2. try to identify the causes of leaner errors.2. try to identify the causes of leaner errors.
3. obtain information on common difficulties in3. obtain information on common difficulties in
language learning, as an aid to teaching or in thelanguage learning, as an aid to teaching or in the
preparation of teaching materials.preparation of teaching materials.

56. Error analysis developed as a branch of applied linguistics in
the 1960s, and set out to demonstrate that many learner
errors were not due to the learner’s mother tongue but
reflected universal learning strategies.
 Error analysis was therefore offered as an
alternative to Contrastive Analysis. Attempts were
made to develop classifications for different types
of errors on the basis of the different processes
that were assumed to account for them

57. 1. intralingual errors: those which result from faulty or partial1. intralingual errors: those which result from faulty or partial
learning of the target language. It may be caused by thelearning of the target language. It may be caused by the
influence of one target language item upon another. Forinfluence of one target language item upon another. For
example, a learner may produce:” He is plays” based on theexample, a learner may produce:” He is plays” based on the
blend of the English structure “ He is playing or He plays”.blend of the English structure “ He is playing or He plays”.
2. interlingual errors: errors which result from language2. interlingual errors: errors which result from language
transfer, that is, which is caused by the learner’s nativetransfer, that is, which is caused by the learner’s native
language. For example, “He wants that book blue instead oflanguage. For example, “He wants that book blue instead of
He wants that blue book”He wants that blue book”

58. Intralingual errorsIntralingual errors
 1. overgeneralizations: those caused by extension1. overgeneralizations: those caused by extension
of target language rules to inappropriate context.of target language rules to inappropriate context.
 2.simplifications: those resulting from learners2.simplifications: those resulting from learners
producing simpler linguistic rules rather than thoseproducing simpler linguistic rules rather than those
found in the TLfound in the TL
 3.developmental errors: those reflecting natural3.developmental errors: those reflecting natural
stages of development.stages of development.
 4.communication-based errors: those resulting4.communication-based errors: those resulting
from strategies of communication.from strategies of communication.
 ..

59. 5.induced errors: those resulting from transfer of5.induced errors: those resulting from transfer of
training.training.
6.errors of avoidance: those resulting from failure to6.errors of avoidance: those resulting from failure to
use certain target language structures because theyuse certain target language structures because they
are thought to be too difficultare thought to be too difficult
7. errors of overproduction: structures being used7. errors of overproduction: structures being used
too frequently.too frequently.

60. DIFFERENTIAL SUCCESS AMONG L2
LEARNERS
 A. AGE.
 There is a controversy as to the age someone is
first exposed to L2, in the classroom or
naturalistically effects acquisition of L2.
 3 positions :
 a. Some claim that SLA is the same process and
just as successful whether the learner begins as a
child or an adult and/or that adults are really better
learners.

61.  b. Others think the data ambiguous and/orb. Others think the data ambiguous and/or
that adults are at a disadvantage only in athat adults are at a disadvantage only in a
few areas, especially phonology.few areas, especially phonology.
 c. others are convinced that youngerc. others are convinced that younger
learners are at an advantage particularlylearners are at an advantage particularly
where ultimate levels of attainment, such aswhere ultimate levels of attainment, such as
accent-freeperformance.accent-freeperformance.

62. Krashen (1979)
 1. Adults proceed through early stages of
syntactic and morphological development
faster than children.
 2. Older children acquire faster than
younger children in early stages of syntactic
and morphological development

63. Explanations for age -related differences
4 major causes
 1. Social-psychological explanations.
– Adults differ from children in that they might be
more inhibited or that their identity as a speaker
of a certain L1 might be more firmly established.
2. Cognitive explanation.
Child SLA and adults SLA might actually
involve different processes; utilizing a LAD in
child SLA while employing general problem-
solving in adults.

64.  3. Input explanation.
– Young learners are said to receive better input than
adults (enjoy language play).
4. Neurological explanation.
Around puberty, lateralization which is the two halves of
the brain becomes specialized for different functions.
Prior to puberty, a critical period exists during which the
brain is more plastic and flexible.

65. B. APTITUDE
 Individual learn languages at different rates.
 It can be attributed to language-specific
aptitude.


66. C. SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS.

1. Motivation
– Gardner and Lambert proposes 2 kinds:
– a. Integrative motivation
 A learner is said to be integratively motivated when
the learner wishes to identify with another
ethnolinguistic group.
– b. instrumental motivation
 Learner is motivated to learn a language for utilitarian
purpose, such as furthering career, improving social
status etc.

67. Findings
 1. Gardner and Lambert hypothesized that those having
integrative motivation would be better in the long run for
sustaining the drive necessary to master the L2.
 2. Lukmani found out that students with instrumental
motivation outperformed those with integrative motivation
on test of proficiency.

68. 2. Attitude
 1. Positive attitude toward the L2 is related to success in
the Canadian bilingual setting (van Els et al, 1984).
 2. Genesee and Hamayan (1980) found no relationship
between attitude factors and the proficiency in the L2 in
children due to the fact that children have not yet their
attitude.

69. D. PERSONALITY
 1. Self-esteem.
– There are 3 kinds of self-esteem:
– global self-esteem: the individual overall self
assessment.
– Specific self-esteem or how individuals perceive
themselves in various life contexts (education,
work etc) and according to various
characteristics (intelligence, attractiveness etc)
– The evaluation of one gives to oneself to on
specific tasks (writing a paper, driving a car)

70. Findings
 Heyde (1979) studied the effects of the
three levels of self-esteem on performance
on a French oral production task by
Americal college students and found that
students performance correlated
significantly with all three levels

71.  Busch (1982) found that hza negative
correlation between the suibjects’ English
pronunciation and extroversion for
Japanese learners of English in Japan
 Introverts tend to have higher scores on the
reading and grammar components of the
standardized English test. Only on the oral
interview task did certain extroverted
subjects have higher scores

72. 2. Extroversion
 extroverted learners learn at a faster rate
than introverts.
 Results of empirical research are
inconclusive.
 Naiman et al (1978) found no significant
correlation between scores on an
extroversion/introversion measure and
performance on listening comprehension.

73. 3.Anxiety
 It is thought that certain people might be
anxious more often than others or have a
more severe reaction to anxiety-producing
situations such that language learning
would be impeded.
 Chastain (1975) found that in some cases
the correlation was negative indicating the
deleterious effect of anxiety; in otherf cases
anxiety seemed to enhance performance.

74. 4. Risk-taking
 Rubin (1975) characterized good language
learners as willing to guess, willing to appear
foolish in order to communicate, and willing to use
what knowledge they have of the TL in oredr to
create novel utterances.
 Beebe (1980) studied the risk taking behavior of
Puerto Rican children learning ESL . Those
experiencing difficulty with do insertion in wh-
questions displayed significantly greater risk-
taking behavior with English interviewer than with
Spanish interviewer (the amount of talk and info

75. Sensitivity to rejection
 The subject’s expectation of the negative
reinforcing quality of others for himself.
 Naiman et al (1978) hypothesized indiduals
whom were sensitive to rejection might
avoid active participation in language class
fearing ridicule by their classmates or
teacher.
 This lack of participation would then
translate into less successfull SLA

76. 6. Emphaty
 Guiora (1972), just as a child develops a general
ego, so the child also acquires a language ego.
When the child is young the ego boundaries are
flexible, a new accent is more readily adopted than
when the boundaries are more fixed. Some adults
presumably those who are more emphatic are
likely to have more permeability of language ego
boundaries since they are able to temporarily
suspend the separateness of their identity, and
that should in turn result in their having an
advantage in FL pronuncation

77. E. HEMISPHERE
SPECIALIZATION
 Lateralization is a process whereby each of
the two hemispheres of the brain becomes
increasingly specialized.
 Each hemisphere may be responsible for a
particular mode of thinking.

78. ACCULTURATION THEORYACCULTURATION THEORY
 Acculturation is a process in which changesAcculturation is a process in which changes
in the language, culture, system of values ofin the language, culture, system of values of
group happen through interaction withgroup happen through interaction with
another group with a different language,another group with a different language,
culture and a system of value.culture and a system of value.
 For example, in second language learning,For example, in second language learning,
acculturation may affect how well one groupacculturation may affect how well one group
(immigrants) learn the language of another(immigrants) learn the language of another
(the dominant group).(the dominant group).

79. Schumann’s Social andSchumann’s Social and
Psychological HypothesisPsychological Hypothesis
 Schumann proposes the relationshipSchumann proposes the relationship
between acculturation and the SLAbetween acculturation and the SLA
SLA is just one aspect of acculturation andSLA is just one aspect of acculturation and
the degree to which a learner acculturatesthe degree to which a learner acculturates
to the target language group will control theto the target language group will control the
degree to which he acquires the L2.degree to which he acquires the L2.

80.  In this view, acculturation (SLA) isIn this view, acculturation (SLA) is
determined by the degree of social anddetermined by the degree of social and
psychological distance between the learnerpsychological distance between the learner
and the target language culture.and the target language culture.
 Social distance is the feeling a person hasSocial distance is the feeling a person has
that his or her social position is relativelythat his or her social position is relatively
similar to or relatively different from thesimilar to or relatively different from the
social position of someone else. It is thesocial position of someone else. It is the
result of factors, such as domination vsresult of factors, such as domination vs
subordination, assimilation vs adaptation,subordination, assimilation vs adaptation,
enclosure etc.enclosure etc.

81.  Psychological distance is the result ofPsychological distance is the result of
various affactive factors that concern thevarious affactive factors that concern the
learner as an individual, such as resolutionlearner as an individual, such as resolution
of language shock, culture shock, andof language shock, culture shock, and
culture stress, integrative vs instrumentalculture stress, integrative vs instrumental
motivation.motivation.
It is assumed that the more social andIt is assumed that the more social and
psychological distance between the L2psychological distance between the L2
learner and the target language group, thelearner and the target language group, the
lower the learner’s degree of acculturationlower the learner’s degree of acculturation
will be toward that group.will be toward that group.

82.  It is predicted that the degree to whioh L2It is predicted that the degree to whioh L2
learners succeed in socially andlearners succeed in socially and
psychological adapting or acculturatiing topsychological adapting or acculturatiing to
the target language group will determinethe target language group will determine
their level of success in learning the targettheir level of success in learning the target
language.language.
 More specifically, social and psychologialMore specifically, social and psychologial
distance influence SLA by determining thedistance influence SLA by determining the
amount of contact learners have with theamount of contact learners have with the
target language and the degree to whichtarget language and the degree to which
they are open to input that is available.they are open to input that is available.

83.  Positive (little distance ) and negativePositive (little distance ) and negative
(greater distance ) social and psychological(greater distance ) social and psychological
situations are described below.situations are described below.
 Factors detrmining social and psychologicalFactors detrmining social and psychological
distance.distance.
1. Positive social distance1. Positive social distance
 Socially equality between L2 group and theSocially equality between L2 group and the
target group.target group.
 Both groups desire assimilationBoth groups desire assimilation
 L2 group is small and not cohesiveL2 group is small and not cohesive

84. ii
 L2 group’s culture is congruent with theL2 group’s culture is congruent with the
target language group.target language group.
 Both groups have positive attitudes towardBoth groups have positive attitudes toward
each other.each other.
 Both groups expect L2 group to shareBoth groups expect L2 group to share
facilities.facilities.
 The L2 group expects to stay in the targetThe L2 group expects to stay in the target
group area for an extended period.group area for an extended period.

85. 2. Negative Social Distance2. Negative Social Distance
 No social equality.No social equality.
 No desire of assimilationNo desire of assimilation
 L2 group is large and cohesiveL2 group is large and cohesive
 Culture of L2 group not congruentCulture of L2 group not congruent
 Groups do not have positive attitudes towardGroups do not have positive attitudes toward
each other.each other.
 No expectation of shared facilitiesNo expectation of shared facilities
 No expectation by L2 group that they wouldNo expectation by L2 group that they would
stay in the TL group area for an extendedstay in the TL group area for an extended
timetime

86. 3. Positive Psychological3. Positive Psychological
DistanceDistance
 No language shockNo language shock
 No culture shockNo culture shock
 High motivationHigh motivation
 Low ego boundariesLow ego boundaries

87. 4. Negative Psychological4. Negative Psychological
DistanceDistance
 Language shockLanguage shock
 Culture shockCulture shock
 Low motivationLow motivation
 High ego boundariesHigh ego boundaries

88.  A case study of a 33 year old Costa Rican immigrant,A case study of a 33 year old Costa Rican immigrant,
alberto. As a member of a group of Latin Amerricanalberto. As a member of a group of Latin Amerrican
working-class immigrants. Alberto was seen as sociallyworking-class immigrants. Alberto was seen as socially
and psychologically quite distant from the target languageand psychologically quite distant from the target language
group. He interacted almost exclusively with a small groupgroup. He interacted almost exclusively with a small group
of Spanish-speaking friends, and showed nop interest inof Spanish-speaking friends, and showed nop interest in
owning television, which would have exposed him to theowning television, which would have exposed him to the
English language, because he said he could notEnglish language, because he said he could not
understand English. Ho chose to work at night and dayunderstand English. Ho chose to work at night and day
time rather that attend English classes.time rather that attend English classes.
 Alberto showed very little linguistic development during a 9-Alberto showed very little linguistic development during a 9-
month longitudinal study.month longitudinal study.

89.  His interlanguage was characterized byHis interlanguage was characterized by
many simplifications and reductions:many simplifications and reductions:
 Use of the general preverbal negators: no,Use of the general preverbal negators: no,
don’tdon’t
 No question inversionsNo question inversions
 Lack of auxiliaryLack of auxiliary
 No inflection of possessiveNo inflection of possessive
 Use of uninflected forms of the verb.Use of uninflected forms of the verb.

90. These simplifications and reductions Schumann sawThese simplifications and reductions Schumann saw
to be a form of pidginization which leads toto be a form of pidginization which leads to
fossilization when the learner no longer revises thefossilization when the learner no longer revises the
IL system in the direction of the TLIL system in the direction of the TL
 Pidginization?Pidginization?
 The development of a grammatically reduced formThe development of a grammatically reduced form
of a TL which is a temporary stage in languageof a TL which is a temporary stage in language
learning.learning.
 Fossilization?Fossilization?
 A process which sometimes occur s in whichA process which sometimes occur s in which
incorrect linguistic features become permanentincorrect linguistic features become permanent
part of the way a person speaks or writes apart of the way a person speaks or writes a
language (pron., vocab,grammar).language (pron., vocab,grammar).

91. Assignment 5Assignment 5
 Find in literature the Acculturation theory.Find in literature the Acculturation theory.
What inspires Schumann to develop theWhat inspires Schumann to develop the
theory, describe it and elaborate thetheory, describe it and elaborate the
research findings.research findings.