1. Fossilization
Fossilization is the phenomenon that the development of a second language seems to stop
at some level. It is extremely rare for the learner of an L2 to achieve full native-like
competence. For example an Indonesian learner, after 11 years instruction in learning
English, he continued making errors such as the use of simple past instead of simple
present - no amount of grammatical explanation or of error correction had any effect.
Social aspects of interlanguage
Three socio-cultural models of L2 acquisition
1 Interlanguage as a stylistic continuum
-stylistic continuum. Why learner language is variable, from a careful style to a vernacular
style
-accomodation theory. How a learner’s social group influences the course of L2 acquisition
2 The acculturation model
-Pidginization takes place when learners are unable or unwilling to adapt to a new culture
because of the social distance and psychological distance from L2 group
3 Social identity and investment
-Learners have complex social identities. Investment is required in order to establish an
identity
Discourse aspects of interlanguage
Main points
Foreigner talk
1 ungrammatical foreigner talk
-deletion of copula be, modal verbs and articles
-the use of special constructions such as ‘no+verb’
2 grammatical foreigner talk
-a slow pace
-simplifications such as the use of shorter sentences, avoidance of subordinate clauses and
the omission of complex grammatical forms
-the use of basic form
-elaborates language use
Input hypothesis
L2 acquisition depends on comprehensible of meaning.
Interaction hypothesis
The Negotiation of meaning assists learners’ L2 acquisition.
Psycholinguistic aspects of interlanguage
Main points
L1 transfer
-negative transfer, positive transfer, avoidance, overuse
The role of consciousness
Processing operations
-operating principles, processing constraints
Communication strategies

2. Social aspects of interlanguage
New Words
Convergence: The process by which speakers make their speech similar to their
interlocutors’ speech. L2 acquisition can viewed as ‘long-term convergence’ towards native-
speaker norms.
Divergence: The process by which speakers make their speech different from their
interlocutors’ speech. Frequent divergence can be considered to impede L2 acqiosition.
Investment: Learners’ commitment to learning an L2, which is viewed as related to the
social identities they construct for themselves as learners.
Discourse aspects of interlanguage
New Words
Comprehensible input: That part of the total input that the learner understands and which
is hypothesized to be necessary for acquisition to take place.
Negative evidence/feedback: Information given directly or indirectly to learners that an
interlanguage hypothesis is incorrect.
Scaffolding: The process by which learners utilize discourse to help them construct
structures that lie outside their competence.
Zone of proximal development: Vygotsky uses this term to refer to the cognitive level that a
child is not yet at but is capable of performing at with adult guidance.
Auto-input: This refers to the possibility that learners’ own out-put can serve as input to
their language acquisition mechanisms
Psycholinguistic aspects of interlanguage
New Words
L1 transfer: The process by which the learner’s L1 influences the acquisition and use of L2.
Contrastive analysis: A set of procedures for comparing and constructing the linguistic
systems of two languages in order to identify their structural similarities and differences.
Restricting continuum: This refers to the idea that interlanguage development consists of
Learners gradually replacing L1 rules with target-language rules.
Operating principles: Slobin’s term for the strategies children use during L1 acquisition to
segment and analyse input, and which account for regular properties of their output.
Multidimensional model: A theory of L2 acquisition proposed by Meisel, Clahsen, and
Pienemann. It distinguishes developmental and variational features according to weather
they are governed by processing constraints or socio-psychological factors
Processing constraints: Mechanisms that block learners’ ability to perform the
permutations involved in different grammatical structures (e.g. produce wh- questions with
inversion).
Parallel distributed processing: A model of language that views language use and
acquisition as involving a complex network of interconnections between units rather than
rules.