This document provides information on various pharmacognostic drugs. It begins by outlining 52 objectives to be covered, which include bitter glycosides, marine toxins, phyotoxins, hormones/steroids, incense materials, and many other drug classes. It then delves into details on each objective, providing the botanical source, chemical constituents, uses, and microscopic and chemical characteristics of many important drugs. Key drugs discussed include clove, cardamom, licorice, picrorhiza, andrographis, and their volatile oils. Extensive chemical tests are also outlined for different drug classes.

1. REVISIONPHARMACOGNOSY-IV
Priyanka Goswami

2. Objectives
1. Bitter Glycosides drugs
- Picrorrhiza, Andrographis
2. Marine cyto-toxin drugs
- Ara-A, Ara-C, Crassin acetate, Sinularia, Geranium
hydroquinone, Asperidol
3. Phyto-toxin drugs
- Abrus, Aconite, Poison ivy, Poison hemlock, Lilly of the valley,
Curare, Blighia
4. Drugs used for hormone & steroid manufacturing
- Dioscorea, Fenugreek, Agave, Smilax
- Diosgenin, Hecogenin, Smilagenin
5. Drug used for Incense stick (dhoop batti)
- Benzoin

3. Objectives
6. Sesquiterpene lactone drug
- Quassia
7. Furano-coumarin glycosides drug
- Ammi & Psoralea
8. Steroidal saponin drugs
- Dioscorea, Aspargus, Agave, Fenugreek, Smilax
9. Pentacyclic triterpenoid saponin drugs
- Licorice, Ginseng, Quillaia
10. Lignan drugs
- Phyllanthus, Podophyllum
11. Amaroid lactone drug
- Quassia

4. Objectives
12. Iridoid drug
- Picrorrhiza
13. Sesqui terpene glucoside & Furano diterpene drug
- Tinospora
14. Sesquiterpene lactone drug
- Artemisia cina
15. Diterpene lactone drug
-Andrographis
16. Polyketide drugs
- Male fern & Podophyllum
17. Hepatoprotective drugs
- Picrorrhiza, Andrographis, Turmeric
18. Anti Cancer drugs
- Taxus, Podophyllum

5. Objectives
19. Cardio tonic & Cardia glycoside
- Digitalis, Strophanthus, Thevetia, Nerium
20. Rodent killer cardiac glycoside
- Squill
21. Expectorant drugs
- Glycyrrhiza (Licorice), Tolu balsam, Benzoin, Quillaia, Eucalyptus,
Anise, Fennel
22. Nervine tonic drugs
- Brahmi (Hydrocotyl & Bacopa)
23. Galactogogue drug
- Aspargus, Fenugreek
24. Rejuvenator & adaptogen (immuno modulator) increase
resistant power-drugs
- Ginseng, Tinospora

6. Objectives
25. Treatment of Vitiligo
- Ammi majus
26. Treatment of Psoriasis & leucoderma
- Psoralea
27. Bitter stomachic drugs
- Gentian, Quassia & chirata
28. Anthelmintic drugs
- Quassia (thread worms), Artemisia cina, Gaultheria (hook worm),
Male fern (tape worm), Kalmegh
29. Sweetening agent
- Licorice
30. Anti malaria drug
- Artemisia annua
31. Sharbat preparation
- Vetiver (Khus)
32. Treatment of Rheumatism
- Gaultheria, Palmrosa, Nutmeg, Rasna, Capsicum

7. Objectives
33. Skin disease drugs
- Palmrosa, Peru balsam (scabies)
34. Mosquito repellant cream
- Citronella
35. Counter irritant drugs
- Eucalyptus, Turpentine, Capsicum
36. Antiseptic drugs
- Eucalyptus, Peppermint, Ajwon, Cinnamon, Saussurea, Myrrh,
Tolu balsam, Benzoin
37. Rubefacient drugs
- Turpentine
38. Antispasmodic drugs
- Ajwon, Dill, Hops
39. Anti-epileptic drugs
- Jatamansi, Valerian

8. Objectives
40. Anti-fungal drugs
- Ajwon
41. Dysuria (painful) urination drug
- Sandalwood
42. Dental analgesic drug
- Clove
43. Sedative drugs
- Hops, Jatamansi
44. Treatment of Asthma drugs
- Saussurea
45. Enteric coated tablets
- Shellac
46. Anti-inflammatory drugs
-Turmeric, Guggul

9. Objectives
47. Diuretic drugs
- Colophony
48. Wound healing drugs
- Peru balsam
49. Laxative-Purgative drugs
- Colocynth, Myrrh
50. Veneral warts drugs
- Podophyllum
51. Motion sickness drug
-Ginger
52. Narcotic analgesic
- Cannabis
53. Intestinal flatulence
- Asafoetida
54. Oleo-gum-resin drugs
- Asafoetida, Myrrh, Guggul

10. Objectives
55. Acid resin drugs
- Colophony (abietic acid), Myrrh (commiphoric acid), Shellac (alleuritic acid)
56. Ester resin drugs
- Siam benzoin (coniferyl benzoate)
57. Sequi terpene drugs example
- Artemisia, Sandalwood, Clove, Hops, Saussurea, Valerian
58. Di-terpene drugs example
- Taxus
59. Tetraterpenoids drug example
- Carrot
60. Balsam drugs (benzoic + cinnamic acid)
- Tolu balsam, Peru balsam, Sumatra bezoin
61. Oleo-resin drugs
- Turpentine & Ginger
62. Resin phenol drugs
- Peruresinotannol (peru balsam), toluresinotannol (tolu balsam) &
siaresinotannol (benzoin)

11. Alcohol volatile oil
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Peppermint-Menthol
Cardamom- Borneol
Coriander-Coriandrol (Linalool)
Rose-Nerol
Sandalwood-Santalol

12. Aldehyde volatile oil
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Cinnamon-Cinnamic aldehyde
Lemon peel- Citral
Orange peel- Citral
Citronella- Citronellal
Lemon grass- Citronellal

13. Ester volatile oil
1. Gaultheria (Wintergreen)-Methyl salicylate

14. Hydrocarbon volatile oil
1. Turpentine- pinene, carene, limonene

15. Ketone volatile oil
1.
2.
3.
4.
Caraway- Carvone
Spearmint – Carvone
Vetiver - Vetivone
Fennel - Fenchone

16. Oxide volatile oil
1. Eucalyptus- Cineole (eucalyptol)

17. Phenolic ether volatile oil
1. Anise-Anethol
2. Fennel- Anethol
3. Nutmeg- Myristicin

18. Phenol volatile oil
1. Clove- Eugenol
2. Ajwon- Thymol

19. Chemical test for Volatile oil
1. With alcoholic solution of Sudan red-III red
color
2. With tincture alkane  red color
3. With vanillin sulphuric acid  yellow-orange
color
(Fennel, Dill, Coriander, Cassia, Cardamom,Clove)

20. Chemical test for Saponin
glycoside
1. Foam test:
Shake with water  froth formation
2. Haemolytic test:
Aq solution + drop of blood  RBCs ruptured and
causing hemolysis
(Licorice, Aspargus, Reetha, Shikakai)

21. Chemical test for Steroid &
Triterpenoid saponin
Alcoholic extract of drug evaporated to dryness and extract with CHCl3
(common for 1 to 3)
1. Libermann buchard testand few drops of acetic anhydride followed by conc. Sulphuric acid from
side wall of test tube to the CHCl3 extract blue-violet ring at the junction
 steroid moiety
2. Salkowaski test
and add conc. H2SO4 from sidewall of test tube  yellow ring at the
junction  steroid moiety
3. SbCl3 test
Add satd solution of SbCl3 in CHCl3 containing 20% acetic anhydride 
pink color on heating  triterpenoids & steroids
4. Trichloro acetic acid test colored ppt
5. Tetranitro methane test  yellow color
6. Zimmermann test  meta dinitrobenzene solution was added to the
alcoholic solution of drug containing alkali, on heating  violet color (ketosteroid)

22. Chemical test for Cardiac
glycoside
To the alc extract, add equal volume of water and 0.5 ml strong lead
acetate  shakedfiltered filtrate was extracted with equal volume of
CHCl3 and CHCl3 extract is evaporated to dryness (common for Test 1 & 2)
1. Keller-killiani test
residue dissolved in 3 ml Glacial acetic acid followed by addition of few
drops of FeCl3 solution –The resultant solution transferred to test tube
containing 2 ml conc. H2SO4  reddish brown layer is formed  turning
to  bluish green after standing due to presence of digitoxose
2. Legal test
Residue dissolved in 2 ml pyridine and 2ml sodium nitroprusside followed
by NaOH solution to make alkaline  formation of pink color in presence
of glycosides or aglycone moiety.
3. Baljet test
Addition of sodium picrate solution  yellow-orange color
4. 3,5-dinitro benzoic acid test
To the alcoholic solution of drug + few drop of NaOH, followed by 2% 3,5donitro benzoic acid  pink color

23. Chemical test for Flavonoids
1. Ammonia test
Filter paper dipped in alcoholic solution, when exposed to
ammonia vapor  yellow spot
2. Shinoda test
To the alcoholic extract, add Mg turning and add dil. HCl 
red color  flavonoids
To the alcoholic extract, add Zn turning and add dil. HCl 
deep red to magenta color  dihydro flavonoids
3. Vanillin HCl test
Vanillin HCl added to alcoholic solution of drug  pink color
 flavonoids

24. Important powder
characteristics
1. Umbelliferous fruits (Dill, Fennel, Coriander)
Common: Endocarp, endosperm, yellow vittae,
lignified mesocarp
Dill  lignified sclreids (stone cells) & nux vomica like
red nuclei like endosperm
Fennel  fibers
Coriander  lignified sclerenchymatous layer (spread
like bed sheet) & endocarp-mesocarp combined

25. Important powder
characteristics
2. Cardamom: parallel epidermal cells like broom and if of seed
coat part then having benzene type cells as well & perisperm
consists of starch grain
3. Licorice: yellow fiber and lignified fibers with cal. Oxalate
crystals inside or sideby & cork
4. Picrorrhiza: cork
5. Aspargus: lignified parenchyma
6. Andrographis: diacytic stomata, covering-glandular trichome,
acicular unlignified fibers
7. Clove: stomata, lignified anther, aerenchyma, oil gland, polen
grain
8. Cassia: Cork & stone cells
9. Quassia: wood: all tissue lignified, medullary rays with cal oxa &
wood element, xylem vessel & fiber

26. Chemical test for Aloe
1. Modified bortranger’s test
The aq. Solution is treated with FeCl3, add dil. HCl
to bring out oxidative hydrolysis of aloe-emodin.
The hydrolysis sets free anthraquinones  which
are collected in organic solvent like CCl4 or ether.
The organic layer is separated and shaken with
dilute ammonia
Ammonia layer shows  rose-pink to cherry red
color  presence of C-glycoside  aloe-emodin

27. 1. CLOVE
• Syn: Lavang
• Source: dried flower buds of
Syzygium aromaticum
(Eugenia caryophyllus),
• Family: Myrtaceae
• GS: Molucca or Clove
Islands, Zanzibar, Pemba,
Madagascar, Indonesia &
Brazil.

28. HISTORY OF CLOVE
Cloves were used in China as early
as 266 BC, and by the 4th
century, they were known in
Europe,
although
very
expensive.
Same as with nutmeg, the Dutch
also destroyed all trees from
surrounding native islands to
secure a monopoly, and
cultivated them only in a small
group of islands.
In 1770, the French managed to
introduce clove trees to
Mauritius,
and
started
cultivating them there, as well
as in Zanzibar, Penang and
Sumatra.

29. COLLECTION & PREPARATION
The flower buds are collected when the lower part turns greencrimson.
• In Zanzibar & Pemba collection takes place twice yearly, between
august and December.
• The inflorescence are collected from movable platforms.
• The cloves are dried in the Open air on mats & separated from their
Peduncles, the later forming a separate article of commerce
known as Clove stalks.
• If left on the tree for too long, the buds open & the petals fall, leaving
“brown cloves”.
• Later the fruits known as “mother cloves” are produced.
• A small portion of these, usually at a stage intermediate between that
of a clove and a fully ripe fruits, are frequently found in the drug.
• Cloves are imported in bales covered with matting made from string
of coconut leaves.
•

30. MACROSCOPICAL FEATURES
-Cloves are 10-17.5 mm long.
-Penang and Amboyna varieties
are the largest and plumpest.
-Zangibar variety is of good
quality and smaller and leaner
comparatively a blackish brown
rather than reddish brown color.
-The head consists of 4 slightly
projecting calyx teeth, 4
membranous petals and
numerous incurved stamens
around a large style.
-Odour: Spicy & Pungent
-Taste: Aromatic

31. MICROSCOPICAL FEATURES
Heavy cuticularized epidermis
Numerous oil cells (shizolysigenous)
Calcium oxalates (cluster crystals & prisms)
Stomata (epidermis of sepals)
Starch (Fruit – “mother cloves”)
Lignified sclereids

34. CONSTITUENTS
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
14-21% Volatile oils
10-13% tannin
Various triterpene and esters
Glycosides of :
aliphatic and monoterpenoid alcohol,
eugenol,
isoeugenol,
farnesol, nerolidol,
sitosterol,
stigmasterol and
campestrol

36. USES OF CLOVE
-Stimulant aromatic
-as a Spice
-For the preparation of
volatile oil
-Sesquiterpenes:
potential anti-carcinogenic
compounds

37. CLOVE OIL
Oil distilled in Europe and
the US normally does
not need purification,
while oil distilled in
other areas (e.g.
Madagascar) does.
After purification the oil
is sold with varying
eugenol contents.
Oil of cloves is yellow or
colourless, is slightly
heavier than water.

38. CLOVE OIL - CONSTITUENTS
• Volatile oils – mainly eugenol & acetyleugenol
• Sesquiterpenes (α and β caryophyllenes)
• Oil of clove – like other volatile/essential oils –
should be stored in a well-fitted, air-tight
container, & should be protected from light &
heat.

39. CLOVE OIL - USES
Anti-septic
Aromatic
Stimulant
Flavouring Agent

40. 2. CARDAMOM FRUIT & OIL
Syn: Ilaychi
Source: dried, nearly dried ripe
fruits of Elettaria cardamomum
Var. miniscula
Family: Zingiberaceae
PARTS USED: Seeds (should
be kept in the fruit until ready to
be used – Prevents loss of
volatile oils).
(3RD most expensive spice).

41. Elettaria cardamomum
• GEOGRAPHICAL
SOURCES
• Sri Lanka
• Southern IndiaAlleppy
• Guatemala
• HISTORY
• Traditional Indian
ceremonies

42. PRODUCTION, COLLECTION & PREPARATION
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Mainly obtained from cultivated plants (propagated by seedlings or
vegetatively [problematic due to virus infection] ).
Capsules on the same raceme ripen at different times and it is important to
collect them when nearly ripe and before that split to shed their seeds. It is
best to cutt off each fruit at the correct stage with a pair of short-bladed
scissors.
In India & Srilanka, flowering and fruiting continues for practically whole year
but most crop is collected from October to December
Too rapied drying is avoided, as it causes fruits to split and shed their seeds.
Sometimes the capsules are re-moistened and further exposed to the sun-but
this sun bleaching though improving appearance, also increases the number
of split fruits.
Bleaching may also done by placing tray of fruits over burning sulphur.
Soaking fruits for 10min. In 2% Sod. Carbonate solution before drying.
Capsules have the remains of the calyx at the apex and stalk at the base,
removed either by hand clipping or by machines.
Fruits then graded by means of sieves into longs, mediums and shorts and
tiny.
If sulphur bleached, are aired in the open before being packed for export.

43. COLLECTION & PREPARATION
• Fruits are dried slowly
(outdoors or indoors).
• Too rapid drying – capsules split
& shed seeds
• Calyx at the apex of the stalk
and the stalk at the base may
be removed.
• Fruits are graded with a sift into
‘longs’, ‘mediums’, ‘shorts’ &
‘tiny’.
• If they have been sulphur –
bleached (improved colour), it
will be aired outdoors before
packed for transport.

44. MACROSCOPICAL FEATURES
• Plant is reed-like - > 4 m, with long leaves growing from
the rhizome.
• Fruits – capsular: inferior, ovoid, 1-2 cm long.
• Apex: shortly beaked & shows floral remains.
• Base: rounded & shows the remain of a stalk.
• Internally the capsule is 3-celled; each cell contains x2
row of seeds.
• Each seed: Slightly angular, 4mm long & 3 mm broad.
• Colour: dark red-brown (fully ripe seeds)  paler in
unripe seeds.
• Strong, pleasant, aromatic odour
• Pungent taste

45. MICROSCOPICAL FEATURES
•
•
•
•
Oil cells
Predominant Parenchyma (yellow colour)
Cells containing silica
Starch grains

49. VARIETIES & ADULTERANTS
• ADULTERATION
– Powdered drug adulterated with the fruit pericarp
(powdered).
• ALLIED HERBS
– Official variety – E. cardamomum var miniscula
– Other: E. cardamomum var major (more elongated &
sometimes 4 cm long with dark brown pericarps)
– Amomum aromaticum (Bengal cardamom)
– Amomum subulatum (Nepal cardamom)
– Amomum cardamomum (Java cardamom)

50. CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS
2.8 – 6.2 % volatile oil (BP-NLT 4%)
Abundant starch (up to 50%)
Fixed oil (1 – 10%)
Calcium oxalate
• OIL
• Terpinyl acetate
• Cineole
• Monoterpenes (alcohol+ester)
•
•
•
•
Cineol

51. Elettaria: ACTIONS & USES
• Flavouring agent (curries
& biscuits)
• Liqueur manufacture
• Small amount is used for
pharmaceutical
manufacture (Compound
Tincture of Cardamom).

52. 3. Digitalis
• Source: Dried leaves of Digitalis
purpurea Linn
• Family: Scrophulariaceae
• Syn. : Purple foxglove, Lady’s glove,
Finger flower
• Histroy: The word purpurea has
been derived from the purple colour
of flowers
• G.S.: England, Germany, France,
North America, India, Iraq, Japan,
Mexico, Spain, Turkey

53. •
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Cultivation
Biennial herb (a plant which blooms in its second
year and then dies)
Good quality of drug is obtained especially from
cultivated plant.
Flourish best in well drained loose soil preferably
of siliceous origin with some slight shade
Plant growing in sunny situation possesses the
active qualities of herb compare to shade by trees.
Best grown when allowed to seed itself
Seeds should be mixed with fine sand in order to
ensure even distribution.
Before sowing soil is sterilized.
Sown in spring, the plant is not blossom till the
following year.
In dry season, sufficient water is supplied.
In 1st yr, long stalk with rosette of leaves is
produced.
True plant shows dull pink or magenta not pale
colored or spotted externally.
•
•
•
•
•
•
Collection
September to November by
hand
Organic matter and
discolored leaves are avoided.
After collection, leaves should
be dried as soon as possible
at 60°C.
By quick drying, green color
of leaves is maintained.
Drying is carried out till
moisture is NMT 5%.
Packed under-pressure in
airtight container.

54. •
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Morphology
Color: Dark grayish green
Odour: Odourless
Taste: bitter
Shape: Ovate lanceolate to broadly ovate
Size: 10-30 cm long, 4-10 cm wide
Margin: Crenate or dentate
Apex: Sub acute
Base: decurrent
Upper surface: Hairy, slightly pubescent,
dark green and little wrinkled
Lower surface: Hairy, grayish green, very
pubescent

55. Microscopy
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Dorsiventral leaf
Plenty of simple covering & glandular
trichome on both surfaces
Covering trichome: uniseriate, 3-4
celled long, collapsed cells, acute apex
& finely warty cuticle.
Glandular trichome: short unicellular
stalk, bicellular or rarely unicellular
head
Anomocytic(ranunculaceous) stomata
Trichome-stomata more in lower
surface
Pericycle: parenchymatous above &
collechymatous below
Calcium oxalate crystal absent

56. Chemical constituents:

57. Chemical Test
 Baljet Test: thick section of leaf + Sodium
picrate  Yellow to orange color
 Legal Test: Glycoside (dissolved in pyridine) +
Sodium nitroprusside (to make alkaline)Pink
to red color
 Keller-killiani Test: isolate glycoside(dissolved
in glacial acetic acid) + FeCl3 + H2SO4 reddish
brown color between two liquids and upper
layer becomes bluish green

58.  Uses
Heart complaints, internal heamorrhage, inflammatory disease,
epilepsy, acute mania
Note: it has cumulative effect in the body so the dose has to be
decided very carefully.
 Market preparation
Lanoxin tablets (Glaxo Smith Kline)
 Adulterants
-Verbascum thapus: Mullelin leaves, covered with large woolly
branched candelabra trichomes
-Primula vulgaris: long 8-9 celled covering trichomes
-Symphytum officinale: comfrey leaves, multicellular trichome
forming hook at the top

59. 4. Dioscorea
• Source: Dried tubers of Dioscorea
deltoidea, D. composita & other species of
Dioscorea
• Family: Dioscoreaceae
• Syn.: Yam, Rheumatism root
• G.S.: North western Himalaya, USA, Mexico
• Chemical Constituents:
• Non-edible as very bitter.
• Rhizome: 75% starch & phenol
• Roots: Diosgenin (4-6%) steroidal sapogenin,
glycoside: smilagenin, epismilagenin, B-isomer of
yammogenin,
• Enzyme: sapogenase;
• Diosgenin is hydrolytic product of saponin dioscin.
• Uses: Source of diosgenin (in manufacturing
progesterone, steroidal drugs, contraceptive) & in
treatment of arthritis

60. Phyto-toxins

61. CONTENT
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
Aconite
Curare
Lilly of the valley
Ergot
Poison ivy
Abrus
Belighia
Yew
Mashrooms
Psoralea
Datura
Poison hemlock

62. 1. ACONITE
• Syn: wolfbane root
• Source: dried roots of Aconitum napellus (Europe)
A. Japonicum (Japan), A. carmichaelli (China),
A.chasmanthum (India)
• Family: Ranunculaceae
• GS: Western Europe-spain, Himalaya
• Toxic principle: total alkaloid 0.3-1.2%
• terpene ester alkaloids: 30% aconitine,
mesoaconitine,hypaconitine, neopelline, napelline,
neoline

63. • Toxicity. All species of monkshood should be considered toxic to humans
and animals. All parts of the plant are toxic, especially the roots, seeds,
and new leaves. Horses have been fatally poisoned after consuming
0.075% of their body weight of the plant. The alkaloids can be absorbed
through the skin and may cause poisoning in humans handling the plant.
• Mechanism of toxicologic damage. Aconitine-type diterpene alkaloids
bind sodium channels, causing persistant activation.
• Diagnosis
• Clinical signs. Clinical signs are similar to those caused by larkspur
poisoning. Within a few hours of ingestion, restlessness, and excessive
salivation are seen. Animals develop muscle weakness and hypotension
and have difficulty breathing. Eventually, affected animals will collapse in
lateral recumbancy. Death may occur several hours to days postingestion due to either heart block and ventricular fibrillation or to
respiratory failure.
• Lesions. No lesions are seen.
• Treatment. No treatment has been proven effective in monkshood
poisoning. Affected animals should be stressed as little as possible.
Symptomatic treatment with intravenous fluids may be helpful. Vomiting
and diarrhea should be controlled. Oral activated charcoal and osmotic
laxatives may be helpful to reduce absorption of alkaloids from the GI
tract.

64. • Use: arrow poison,
potent-quick acting
poison
-not used internally in
UK except in
homeopathic doses
-formerly used for antineuralgic liniment

65. 2. CURARE
• History: generic name applied to various south
american arrow poisons from family menispermaceaechondendron spp and Loganiaceae
1. Effect is too immediate that the animal can’t flee
2. The muscle relaxation induced by the poison prevents
parrots
3. Toxic only to parenteral route
• GS: upper amazon region: brazil and peru
• BS: Chondrodendron (Ch. tomentosum, Ch.
Platyphyllum, Ch. Microphyllum)
• Curarea: Cu. Toxicofera, Cu. Candicans, Cu. Tecunarum,
Cu. Caurtecasasii)

66. 2. CURARE
• Toxic principle: Tubocurarine,
isochondrodendrin dimethyl
ether, curine, chondrocurine,
isochondrodendrine
• Use: as source of alkaloids,
• Tubocurarine chloride official in
BP/EP is used to secure
muscular relaxant n surgical
operation and in certain
neurological conditions.
• Death that kills slowly.

67. 3. Lily of the valley
BS: dried flower tops of Convallaria majalis
Family: Liliaceae
GS: Europe, North America, Western Asis
Compostion: complex nearly 40 glycosides
built upon about 10 aglycone and closely
dependent on the geographical origin.
• Toxic principle: Chief glycoside: aglycone
with 5-beta—hydroxyl group : kstrophanthidin of convalloside,
convallatoxin, desglucocheirotoxin),
convallataxol & lokundjoside
•
•
•
•

68. 3. Lily of the valley
• Convallatoxin: very active
glycoside but fortunately it is
very poorly absorbed in the
intestine
• Although the ingestion of lily
of the valley is frequently at
the origin of calls to poison
centers, symptoms are
observed only in 10-15%
cases.
• Nausea, vomiting
• Toxicity even found in flower
vases containing lily.

69. 5. Poison Ivy
Syn: sumacs, poison dogweed
BS: Toxicodendron radicans
GS: USA
Toxic Principles: Phenols: urushiols, o-diphenols substituted
by an aliphatic chain of 15-17 carbon atoms, and more or
less unsaturated
• Oxidized to quinones, they formed covalent bond with
proteins and yields an antigenic complex.
• Use: contact with the fresh plant results in sever and
extended dermatitis with blisters.
• Hands and clothing; objects and disseminate the phenol
that remain intact for months.
•
•
•
•

70. Chemical Constituents

71. 10. Psoralea toxin-Furanocoumarins
• Syn: Bavchi, Malaya tea
• Source: dried ripe fruits and seeds of Psoralea
corylifolia
• Family: Leguminosae
• GS: India, China, Srilanka, Nepal, Vietnam
• Toxic principle: coumarin like psoralen, isopsoralen,
psoralidin, isopsoralidin, carylifolean,
bavachromanol and psoralenol, Fixed oil 10%,
essential oil 0.05% and resin
• Seeds: Flavonoids: bavachalcone, bavachinin,
isobavachalcone, bavachin and isobavachin
• Seed oil: limonene, aelemene, betacaryophyllenoxide, 4-terpineol, linalool, geranyl
acetate, angelicin, psoralen, bakuchiol

72. Psoralen
Psoralidin
• Chemical Test:
1) psoralen, dissolved in alcohol + NaOH  UV light
observation yellow fluorescence
2) Psoralen, dissolved in small amount of alcohol, 3 times
propylene glycol, 5 times acetic acid, 40 times water UV
light observation blue fluorescence
• USES
Aphrodiasic, antibacterial, astringent, cytotoxic, deobstruent,
diaphoretic, diuretic, stimulant, stomachic , tonic, lower back
pain, skin disease, bed wetting, leprosy, hair loss

73. 1. Quassia
• Syn: Bitter wood, Jamaica Quassia
• Source: dried wood of the stem of
Aeschrion excelsa (Picroena or Picrasma
excelsa)
• Family: Simaroubaceae
• GS: West indies, Jamaica, Guadeloupe,
Martinique, Barbados, St. Vincent
• Use: Bitter tonic, Insecticide,
vermicide for thread worms, slightly
narcotic & acts on flies, increase
appetite

74. Constituents & Structures
1. Terpenoid : Amaroid
• quassin, an intensely bitter lactone
• Neoquassin
• Isoquassin (picrasmin)
• 18-hydroxy quassin
• Scopoletin
2. Alkaloid: Cathine-6-one
3. Volatile Oil
4. Inorganic salt: CaCl2, NaCl, sulphate of
lime, oxalate, ammonical, KNO3,
Neoquassin

75. 2. Picrorrhiza
• Syn: Kutki, Yellow gentian
• Source: dried rhizomes of
Picrorrhiza kurroa
• Family: Scrophulariaceae
• GS: North-west Himalaya region at
3000-4000 m
• Use: Bitter tonic, Hepatoprotective,
Immunomodulator, curing different
types of jaundice, skin disease,
improves eye sight, Cholagoguestimulates gallbladder contraction to promote bile flow

76. Constituents & Structures
1. Iridoid glycoside:
• Picroside I
• Picroside II
• Kutkoside
• Pikoroside
• Picrorhizinon
hydrolysispicrorhizetin +
dextrose
2. Phenolic glycoside:
• Picein
• Androsin
3. Cucurbitacin glycoside

77. 5. Taxus
• Syn: Yew
• Source & GS: dried bark of
• Taxus baccata (Europe)
• Taxus brevifolia &
T. canadensis (North america)
• Taxus cuspidata (Japan)
• Taxus wallichiana (Himalaya)
• Family: Taxaceae

78. Constituents & Structures
Tricyclic diterpenoids:
• Taxane skeleton
• Taxusines
• Taxagifen
• Baccatin-III
• Taxine
• Taxol
• Cephalomannine
• Taxicine

79. USES
• Paclitaxel: mitotic spindle
poison
• M/a: it promotes assembly
of tubulin dimers into
microtubules which is stabilized
by inhibiting their
depolymerization
• Indication: Advanced ovarian
cancer, metastatic breast cancer
• S/e: neutropenia, peripheral
neuropathy, CVS, alopecia
• Posology: 135-175 mg/m2
•
•
•
•
Docetaxel:
Indication: breast
cancer
S/e: severe
neutropenia,
hypersensitivity
reaction, water
retention, cutaneous
reaction
Posology: 100 mg/m2

80. 7. Gentian
• Syn: yellow gentian root
• Source: dried fermented roots and
rhizomes of Gentiana lutea
• Family: Gentianaceae
• GS: Mountainous regions of Central
and south europe, Turkey, Yugoslavia
Now: France, Italy, Germany
• Use: bitter tonic, GIT problems, antiinflammatory, wound healing,
choleretic-stimulating bile production,
anti-oxidant, hepato-protective, antifungal

81. Constituents & Structures
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Bitter glycoside, alkaloids, yellow
coloring agent, sugar, pectin, fixed oil
Seco-iridoid: gentiopicroside
(gentiopicrin-gentiomarine)
Hydrolysis product: gentiogenin +
glucose
Biphenolic acid ester of
gentiopicrosideamarogentinhighest
bitter
Sweroside, swertiamarine
Yellow color is due to
Xanthonegentistin or gentiamarine,
isogentistin, gentioside, gentisic acid
Alkaloid: gentianine, gentialutine

82. 8. Chirata
• Syn: Indian gentian, Indian
balmony, chirayta
• Source: entire herb of Swertia
chirata
• Family: Gentianaceae
• GS: India, Nepal, Bhutan
• Use: ingredient of Mahasudrashan
& Sudarashan churna, chronic
fever, bitter tonic, stimulant, liver
protective, promoting flow of bile,
cures constipation and useful in
treating dyspepsia

83. Constituents & Structures
Chirata:
• chiritin, gentiopicrin and
amarogentin
• Amarogentin: phenol
carboxylic acid ester of
sweroside: related to
gentiopicrin
• Ophelic acid
• Gentianine
• Gentiocrucine

84. 9. Andrographis
• Syn: Kalmegh, King of bitter, kirayet
• Source: leaves and entire aerial part
of Andrographis paniculata
• Family: Acanthaceae
• GS: growing -India, Pakistan, Srilanka,
Indonesia
Cultivated-China, Thailand, west indies,
Mauritius
• Use: bitter tonic, febrifuge-reduce
fever, anthelmintic, astringent,
cholagoggue, cholera, diabetes,
weakness, blood purifier, jaundice, GI
disturbances, itching

85. Constituents & Structures
• Diterpene lactone:
kalmeghin
• Andrographolide
• Neoandrographolide
• 14-deoxy-11,12didehydroandrographolide
• 14-deoxy-11-oxoAndrographolide
• Andrographiside

86. 1. Podophylum:
Lignan & Polyketide
• Syn: May apple, Wild mandrake
• Source: dried roots and rhizomes of American:
Podophyllum peltatum & India: Podophyllum
hexandrum (P.emodi)
• Family: Podophyllaceae
• GS: America (US-Virginia, Kentucky, North carolina,
Tennessee, Indiana, Canada)
Indian: Tibet, China, Afghanistan, Himalayas
• Collection:
The rhizome which is about 1 m in length, is dug up cut
into pieces about 10 cm in length and dried.

87. • Constituents:
P. peltatum
2-8% resinous material as
podophyllin
Lignan dvt: podophyllotoxin,
alpha & beta peltatin
(Lignan: in form of glycoside)
Desmethyl podophyllotoxin,
desoxypodophyllotoxin,
podophyllotoxone,
Flavonoid: quercetin
Starch
P. hexandrum
6-12% Resin
40% podophyllotoxin

88. • Chemical Test:
Alcoholic ext. + strong copper acetate- brown
ppt with Indian podophyllum & green color
without ppt with american podophyllum
• USES:
-Cyto-toxic, venereal disease
-Podophyllotoxin is semisynthetically converted to
etoposide potent anticancer agent for lung &
testicular.
-Its GIT irritant, drastic purgative in moderate
uses

89. 3. Ammi majus
Syn: Bishop’s weed, Laceflower,
Toothpick ammi, Large bullwort
• Source: dried fruits of Ammi majus
• Family: Umbelliferae
• GS: Europe, Egypt, West africa, India
• Constituents: furanocoumarins, xanthotoxin, imperatorin,
bergapten, isopimpilin
• CT: 1) drug+ waterboilstrainfiltrate+ NaOH no rose
color----distinct from Ammi visanaga
2) Alc. Ext of fruit blue fluorescence under UV light
• USES: furanocoumarin: stimulate pigment production in skin
when exposed to bright sunlight and hence- treatment of
vitiligo and psoriasis
•

90. • Constituents:
furanocoumarins,
xanthotoxin,
imperatorin, bergapten,
isopimpilin

91. 4. Phyllanthus (Lignan)
• Syn: Bhumyamlaki, Stone breaker
• Source: dried leaves and stem of
Phyllanthis niruri
• Family: Euphorbiaceae
• GS: trophical zone
• Uses:
Kidney stones treatment
Antibacterial
Anti inflamatory
Anti hepatotoxic
Antiespasmodic
Anti viral
Hepatotonic
Choleretic
Inmuno stimulant

92. • Constituents
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Lignans: phyllanthin, hypophyllanthine, phyltetralin, lintetralin, niranthin, nirtetralin,
nirphylline, nirurin, niruriside.
Terpenes: Cymene, limonene, lupeol and lupeol acetate.
Flavonoids. Quercetin, Quercitrin, Isoquercitrin, astragalin, rutin, physetinglucoside.
Lipids: Ricinoleic acid, dotriancontanoic acid, linoleic acid, linolenic acid.
Benzenoids: Methylsalicilate.
Alkaloids: Norsecurinine, 4 - metoxy - Norsecurinine, entnorsecurinina, nirurine,
phyllantin, phyllochrysine.
Steroids. Beta-sitosterol.
Alcanes: Triacontanal, Triacontanol.
Others. Vitamin C, tanins, saponins.

93. 2. ASAFOETIDA
• Syn: Hing, Devil’s dung, Asant, Asafoda
• Source: Oleogum resin obtained from the
incision of rhizome and root of Ferula foetida,
F.rubricaulis, F.asafoetida & other species of
Ferula
• Family: Umbelliferae
• GS: Iran,Pakistan, Afghanistan,
India (Kashmir)

94. COLLECTION
large schizogenous ducts
and lysigenous cavaties
containing milky liquid.
removal of the stem and
the cutting of successive
slices in March-April.
exposed surface is
covered by a dome
shaped structure made
of twigs and earth.
The product is packed in
tine lined cases for
export.
after each slice is
removed, oleo-gumresin exudes and when
sufficiently hardened, is
collected.

95. CHARACTERS
• Forms: 2 Types: Tears & Masses
• Color: golden yellowish brown
• Odor: strong
• Taste: bitter & acrid
Specification:
• NMT 15% ash
• NMT 50% matter which is insoluble in 90%
alcohol

96. CONSTITUENTS
Resin
Volatile Oil
• Asaresinol
ferulate
• Ferulic acid
• C7H14S2
• C16H20S2
• C8H16S2
• C10H18S2
• C7H14S3
• C8H16S3
• Umbelliferyl ester
Sulphur containing
Gum
Flavour: R-2-butyl-1-propenyl disulphide

98. CT & USE
1. Powder + water  trituration milky white emulsion
2. Combined umbelliferone Test: Powder+ HCl boilfilter
filtrate + NH3 blue fluorescence
3. Fractured surface+H2SO4 red color production, which
changes to violet on washing with water
4. Fractured surface+HNO3green color
USE
Carminative, expectorant, flavoring curry, sauce and pickles,
nerve stimulant, intestinal flatulence, enema, sedative in
hysteria

99. ALLIED SPP. &
ADULTERANTS
Allied spp:
Galbanum (Ferula galbaniflua and
Ammoniacum (Dorema ammoniacum)
Adulterant:
Red clay, gypsum, chalk, potato slices

100. 4. PERU BALSAM
• Syn: China Oil, Black balsam, Peruvian balsam
• Source: Obtained from trunk of the Myroxylum
balsamum var. pereirae (trunk is beaten and
scorched)
• Family: Leguminosae
• GS: Central America (San Salvador, Honduras,
Guatemala)

101. COLLECTION & PREPARATION
The balsam is collected
from trees that are
around 10 years old in
the month of
November or
December i.e. by the
end of rainy season
The trunk is beaten at
an area of 30x15 cm
using the handle of the
axe or a stone or a
stick.
As peru balsam is a
pathological resin,
which is present only
in the young twigs, a
secretion of the
balsam takes place
after 5 days
A rag is placed under
the bark so that it can
absorb the resin
Balsam sinks at the
bottom of water, the
water is decanted,
balsam collected,
packed in tins and
exported
The rags, which are
collected, are put into
strong rope bags,
which are twisted at
the ends and pressed,
so that balsam falls
into boiling water
The resin flow for
about 5-6 weeks and
the fresh area on the
bark are beaten and
scorched.
Once the bark is
exhausted the bark is
removed and the
young wood is also
treated in similar
manner

102. CHARACTERS
• Color: dark brown
• Odor: aromatic vanilla like
• soluble in chloroform, chloral hydrate, in equal
proportion with 90% alcohol
• sparingly soluble in petroleum ether, glacial
acetic acid and insoluble in water
• Specific gravity: 1.14 to 1.17
• NLT 45% and NMT 70% of esters.

103. CONSTITUENTS & USES
• benzyl cinnamate (cinnamein) C6H5CH=CHCOOCH2C6H5,
• benzyl benzoate and cinnamyl cinnamate (styracin).
• 28% of resin: peruresinotannol combined with cinnamic acid,
benzoic acids, alcohols (nerolidol, farnesol and benzyl alcohol)
and small quantities of vanillin and free cinnamic acid.
• antiseptic dressing for wounds
• parasiticide for scabies
• internally to treat catarrh and diarrhea.

104. 5. TOLU BALSAM
• Syn: Tolu resin, Thomas balsam, Opobalsam
• Source: Obtained by incision from the trunk of Myroxylon
balsamum var. balsamum
• Family: Leguminosae
• GS: West indies, Cuba, Venezuela, Colombia
• Collection:
• V-shaped incisions in the bark
• Many such receivers are fixed on each tree, the yield per tree
being 8-10kg.
• Periodically, the balsam is transferred to large containers.

105. CHARACTERS & CT
• Color: yellow on standing brown
• Odor & Taste: aromatic
Test
1. Alcoholic solution is acidic to Litmus
2. Powder + FeCl3  green (resinotannol)
3. Powder + Water  decoction  oxidation 
KMnO4  odor of benzaldehyde (due to
oxidation of cinnamic acid)

106. CONSTITUENTS &
USES
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
80% of resin alcohols combined with cinnamic and benzoic acids.
12-15% of free cinnamic and 8% of free benzoic acid.
Benzyl benzoate, benzyl cinnamte & vanillin
Styrene,eugenol, vanillin, ferulic acid, 1,2-diphenylethane, mono and
sesqui-terpene hydrocarbon and alcohols.
triterpenoids
35-50% of total balsamic acid
USE
Genuine tolu balsam is difficult to obtain
now uses tolu flavor solution containing 5 aromatics for preparation
of tolu syrup.
antiseptic, common ingredient of cough mixture

107. 6. SUMATRA
(INDONESIA) BENZOIN
• Syn: Gum benjamin
• Source: balsamic resin obtained from the
incised stem of Styrax benzoin, Styrax
parallloneurus
• Family: Styracaceae
• GS: Sumatra (western Indonesia), Java, Borneo

108. COLLECTION
Cultivation in rice plants-Tapping-Grading
Seeds are sown in rice fields, rice shading
the young trees during 1st year. After
harvesting of rice the tress are allowed to
grow until they are about 7 years old
Stamping in to
Tins &
commercial drug
arrives in plaited
container with
plastic wrapping
Blending done
by: breaking up
the drug; mixing
different
proportion of 3
qualities,
softening in sun
Triangular
wounds are
made in a
vertical row
about 40 cm
apart, bark
between
wounds being
scraped
smoothly
Grading done
mixing 3
quality: best
contains most
almonds and
worst contains
a few almonds
but abundant
resin mixture
1st secretion is
very sticky and
is rejected..
After making
further cuts,
each about 4 cm
above the
preceding ones,
harder Secretion
is obtained
About 2 weeks
later the strip is
scrapped again,
giving a lower
quality darker in
color and
containing
fragments of
bark
Further
incision, after
3 months and
secretion
becomes
amorphous
instead of
crystalline
About 6 weeks of
fresh tapping, the
product is scrapped
off, outer layer
(finest quality)
being kept separate
from the next layer
(intermediate
quality

109. CHARACTERISTICS
•
•
•
•
Occur as: brittle mass
Color: whitish-reddish tears
Odor: agreeable & balsamic
Taste: slightly acrid

110. CONSTITUENTS
• Free balsamic acid (20% cinnamic +
10% benzoic acid)
• Triterpenoids: siaresinolic acid,
sumaresinolic acid
High grade of S.paralleloneurum
3% benzoic acid
0.5% vanillin
20-30% cinnamic acid
Siaresinolic acid
Sumaresinoliac acid

111. ALLIED DRUGS & USES
• Internally: expectorant,
antisepctic
• Ingredient: Friar’s balsam
Palembang, inferior quality
benzoin: lighter in weight & • Externally: cosmetic
lotion, food, drink,
breaking with an irregular
perfumary & toilet
porous fracture & as a
source of natural benzoic
industries
acid
• Component: Incense

112. 6.1 SIAM (Thailand)
BENZOIN
• Source: obtained by incision of the trunk of
Styrax tonkinesis
• Family: Styracaceae
• GS: Thai province of Luang prabang, Northen
Laos, Northen Vietnam at altitude of 600-2500
m
• It seems that this height is necessary for resin
production; not all trees are productive

113. METHOD OF
PREPARATION
• Similar to Sumatra benzoin
• Resin, being produced at the interface of the
bark and wood layers only after injury.
• Grading of tears: size, color, largest, palest
• Size: few mm to 3cm
• Color: yellowish white to reddish changes to
brown due to oxidation
• Odor: agreeable & vanilla like

114. CONSTITUENTS
• Coniferyl benzoate,
coniferyl cinnamate,
coniferyl alcohol
• 10% benzoic acid,
Triterpenoid acid,
esters, Vanillin

115. CHEMICAL
TEST
• Siam benzoin is expensive & liable to adulteration with the sumatra
benzoin, which can be detected by BP/EP/TLC
1. Powdered benzoin + KMnO4  warm faint odor of
benzaldehyde (with sumatra benzoin due to oxidation of cinnamic
acid) (NOT OBSERVED WITH SIAM)
2. Alc Ext + Alcoholic FeCl3 green color produced (with SIAM
benzoin due to coniferyl benzoate-tannins) (NOT WITH SUMATRA)
3. When Sumatra benzoin is gradually heated evolves fumes of
benzoic and cinnamic acid  readily condensed on cool surface as
a crystal sublimate
4. Petroleum ether solution of benzoin + 2-3 drops of H2SO4 in a
china dish  reddish brown color with SUMATRA BENZOIN and
purple-red color with SIAM BENZOIN

116. 9. SHELLAC
resemble cochineal insect in structure and life history
• Source: resinous substance prepared from a
secretion that encrusts the bodies of a scale
insect Karria Lacca (Lucifer lacca), order
Hemiptera
• GS: India, Thailand, China (5% of world’s
production)
• India: Leguminosae (Acacia spp., Butea
frondosa), Euphorbiaceae (Aleuritis laccifera),
Moraceae (Ficus spp.), Dipterocarpaceae
(Cajanus indivus, Shorea talura), Rhamnaceae
(Ziziphus jujuba)
• China: species of Ficus and Dalbergia
(Leguminosae)

117. Preparation
Lac is found on smaller branches & twigs
Broken off and constitute stick lac
Scraped from twigs by means of curved knives
Usually ground in India & coloring matter is extracted with
water or dilute soda solution.
• Solution evaporates to dryness constitute lac dye and
exhausted lac when dried seed lac
•
•
•
•

118. Types of Shellac

119. Characters, Constituents & Uses
• Orange shellac: brownish yellow flake
• Garnet shellac: reddish brown
• 6% wax, 6.5% red water soluble coloring matter,laccaic acid, 70-85%
resin, few insect remains, vegetable debris
• Resin: Hard & Soft (hydroxy fatty acid + sesqui terpene)
• Hard Resin: aleuritic acid (9,10,16-trihydroxypalmitic acid)
• Soft resin: cedrene type sesquiterpene acid, water insoluble yellow
pigment –erythrolaccin (tetrahydroxy-4-methylanthraquinone
• Pharmaceutical aid, In varnishes, polish, sealing wax

120. Marine Cyto-toxic
• any drug that has a toxic effect on cells;
commonly used in chemotherapy to inhibit the
proliferation of cancerous cells
• Categorized as
– Cembranes
– Macrolide
– Depipeptides
– Miscellaneous

121. Cembranes
• 14 membered cyclic
diterpened
• Source: soft coral
• Exocyclic lactone integral
part

122. Cembranes
• Lactone ring
– 1) Sinularine
– 2) Crassin acetate
– 3) Cytabarine = Ara-C
– 4) Fludarabine
– 5) Aplysistatin
• Non-Lactone ring
• 1) Asperidol
• 2) Geranyl hydroquinone

123. Sinularine
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Source: Sinularia flexibilis
Constituents:
Epoxide ring
Simularin
Dihyrdosimularin
Simulariolide
Application: Anti-cancer

124. Crassin acetate
• Source: soft coral, Caribbean gorgonian
Pseudoplexaura porosa
• Use: observed to be comparatively inert to the
mammalian systems but on the contrary found
to be extremely cytotoxic to human leukemic as
well Hella cells in vitro & mouse fibroblast.

125. Cytarabine = Ara-C
• Source: Cryptotethya crypta
• Market preparation: Cytosar by Upjohn pharma
• 1-alpha-D-arabinofuranosyl cytosine or cytosine
arabinoside
• Obtained from Caribbean sponges viz. Spongosine &
Spongouridine
• Synthesized from acetylation of uracil arabinoside
followed by treatment with phosphorus pentasulphide
and subsequent heating with ammonia
• Application: acute myelogenous leukemia and human
acute leukemia for therapeutic purpose
• Active against Erlich carcinoma, sarcoma-180 and L-1210
leukemia in mice

126. 4) Fludarabine: Ara-A
5) Aplysistatin: Aplysistatin angasi

127. Non-lactone
• Gorgonian coral
1) Geranyl hydroquinone: Chloroform extract of
Aplydium spp.
• Cytotoxic to leukemia and mammary carcinoma
& as radioprotective agent
2) Asperidol

128. Bryostatin
• Source: Bugula neritina
• They are currently under investigation as anticancer agents and as a memory enhancing agent.
• Synthesis:
• The low concentration in bryozoans (to extract
one gram of bryostatin, roughly one tonne of the
raw bryozoans is needed.