There are several types of isomerism that can occur when compounds have the same molecular formula:
- Structural isomerism occurs when compounds have the same molecular formula but different structural formulas due to variations in how atoms are connected or arranged in the carbon skeleton. This includes chain and positional isomers.
- Stereoisomerism occurs when compounds have the same molecular formula and structural formula but different spatial arrangements of atoms. Geometrical isomerism, a type of stereoisomerism, can occur in alkenes and results in cis-trans isomers due to restricted rotation around carbon-carbon double bonds.
- Functional group isomerism occurs when compounds have the same molecular formula but different
Preparation and reaction of aldehyde and ketone, electromeric effect, aldol condensation, cannizarro reaction, perkin condensation, benzoin condensation, nucleophilic addition reaction and uses of aldehyde and ketone
Basic concepts of organic chemistry such as structural formulas, different kinds of representation, types of isomerism, examples, alkanes, alkenes, alkynes etc.
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Isomers are molecules with the same molecular formula, but different structural or spatial arrangements of the atoms within the molecule. The reason there are such a colossal number of organic compounds which is more than 10 million is partly due to isomerism.
Isomerism
History
In the year 1827, chemistry scholar Friedrich Woehler prepared cyanic acid and got surprised that the chemical composition of the formed substance was identical to the fulminic acid but the properties of this acid are very much different. This finding created shockwaves in the science scholar community as at that time it was considered that chemical compounds can only have different properties if they have different elemental
One of the most essential features of organic molecules is their propensity compositions. After some discoveries of some sort, this was considered a scientific phenomenon and Jacob Berzelius named this phenomenon Isomerism.
What is isomerism?
to show isomerism. Two or more compounds with the same molecular formula but different physical and chemical properties are known as isomers, and this property of a compound is known as Isomerism.
Types of Isomerism
Isomerism can be classified into two categories as follows:
• Structural or constitutional isomerism
• Stereoisomerism
Structural Isomerism
The constitution of a molecule refers to the quantity, kind, and connection of its atoms. The structural isomers or constitutional isomers differ in the connection of their atoms, and this phenomenon is known as structural isomerism. It is also known as constitutional isomerism.
Because they have the same molecular formula, ethanol, and dimethyl ether are isomers. C2H6O. Because the atoms in each chemical are bonded differently, they are structural isomers. The following are some examples of structural isomerism in various forms:
• Chain isomerism
• Position isomerism
• Functional isomerism
• Metamerism
• Tautomerism
• Ring chain isomerism
Chain Isomerism
Chain isomers are isomeric substances that differ solely in the arrangement of carbon atoms in the base chain, and chain isomerism is isomerism between them. The carbon atom chain or skeleton differs amongst isomers of this type.
Carbon atoms can be arranged in a straight or branched chain. Chain isomerism does not exist in molecules comprising up to three carbon atoms since they are a continuous chain with no chance of branching. It is demonstrated for compounds with four or more carbon atoms.
• Chain isomerism in alkanes: Alkanes containing four or more carbon atoms. For example, Two chain isomers are represented by the chemical formula C4H10.
• Chain isomerism in alkenes: When writing chain isomers for alkenes, the position of the double bond should not be modified. For example, Two chain isomers are represented by the chemical formula C4H8.
Position Isomerism
Position isomerization is a phenomenon that occurs when two or more compounds differ in the position of a component atom or functional group on the carbon skeleton.
C3H8O, for example, is made up of two alcohols:
Functional Isomerism
Two or more molecules with the same chemical formula but distinct functional groups are called functional isomers. Functional isomerism is the term for this occurrence.
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2. TYPES OF ISOMERISM
Occurs due to the restricted
rotation of C=C double bonds...
two forms – E and Z
STRUCTURAL ISOMERISM
STEREOISOMERISM
GEOMETRICAL ISOMERISM
OPTICAL ISOMERISM
CHAIN ISOMERISM
Same molecular formula but
different structural formulae
Occurs when molecules have a
chiral centre. Get two non-
superimposable mirror images.
Not covered in AS Chemistry.
Same molecular
formula but atoms
occupy different
positions in space.
POSITION ISOMERISM
FUNCTIONAL GROUP
ISOMERISM
3. STRUCTURAL ISOMERISM - INTRODUCTION
COMPOUNDS HAVE THE SAME MOLECULAR FORMULA
BUT DIFFERENT STRUCTURAL FORMULA
Chain different arrangements of the carbon
skeleton
similar chemical properties
slightly different physical properties
more branching = lower boiling point
9. So the branched alkane is called methylpropane. It is a chain isomer
of butane.
10. caused by different arrangements of the carbon skeleton
similar chemical properties
slightly different physical properties
more branching = lower boiling point
There are two structural isomers of C4H10. One is a straight chain molecule where all
the carbon atoms are in a single row. The other is a branched molecule where three
carbon atoms are in a row and one carbon atom sticks out of the main chain.
BUTANE
straight chain
2-METHYLPROPANE
branched
C4H10
STRUCTURAL ISOMERISM - CHAIN
11. STRUCTURAL ISOMERISM - CHAIN
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CHAIN ISOMERS
Chemical Isomers show similar chemical properties because
the same functional group is present.
Physical Properties such as density and boiling point show trends according
to the of the degree of branching
Boiling Point “straight” chain isomers have higher values than branched ones
the greater the degree of branching the lower the boiling point
branching decreases the effectiveness of intermolecular forces
less energy has to be put in to separate the molecules
- 0.5°C
straight chain
- 11.7°C
branched
greater branching
= lower boiling point
12. STRUCTURAL ISOMERISM - POSITION
COMPOUNDS HAVE THE SAME MOLECULAR FORMULA
BUT DIFFERENT STRUCTURAL FORMULA
Positional same carbon skeleton
same functional group
functional group is in a different position
similar chemical properties - slightly
different physical properties
34. POSITION OF A DOUBLE BOND IN ALKENES
PENT-1-ENE
double bond between
carbons 1 and 2
PENT-2-ENE
double bond between
carbons 2 and 3
1 2 2 3
There are no other isomers with five C‟s in the longest chain but there are three
other structural isomers with a chain of four carbons plus one in a branch.
Example 1
STRUCTURAL ISOMERISM - POSITIONAL
molecule has the same carbon skeleton
molecule has the same same functional group... BUT
the functional group is in a different position
have similar chemical properties / different physical properties
35. 1-CHLOROBUTANE
halogen on carbon 1
1 2
Moving the chlorine along the chain makes new isomers; the position is measured from
the end nearest the functional group... the third example is 2- NOT 3-chlorobutane.
There are 2 more structural isomers of C4H9Cl but they have a longest chain of 3
2-CHLOROBUTANE
halogen on carbon 2
BUT
is NOT
3-CHLOROBUTANE
2
POSITION OF A HALOGEN IN A HALOALKANEExample 2
STRUCTURAL ISOMERISM - POSITIONAL
molecule has the same carbon skeleton
molecule has the same same functional group... BUT
the functional group is in a different position
have similar chemical properties / different physical properties
36. STRUCTURAL ISOMERISM - POSITIONAL
1,3-DICHLOROBENZENE
meta dichlorobenzene
1,2-DICHLOROBENZENE
ortho dichlorobenzene
1,4-DICHLOROBENZENE
para dichlorobenzene
RELATIVE POSITIONS ON A BENZENE RINGExample 3
molecule has the same carbon skeleton
molecule has the same same functional group... BUT
the functional group is in a different position
have similar chemical properties / different physical properties
37. STRUCTURAL ISOMERISM - INTRODUCTION
Functional Group different functional group
different chemical properties
different physical properties
53. STRUCTURAL ISOMERISM – FUNCTIONAL GROUP
molecules have same molecular formula
molecules have different functional groups
molecules have different chemical properties
molecules have different physical properties
ALCOHOLS and ETHERS
ALDEHYDES and KETONES
ACIDS and ESTERS
54. ALCOHOLS and ETHERS
Name ETHANOL METHOXYMETHANE
Classification ALCOHOL ETHER
Functional Group R-OH R-O-R
Physical properties polar O-H bond gives rise No hydrogen bonding
to hydrogen bonding. low boiling point
get higher boiling point insoluble in water
and solubility in water
Chemical properties Lewis base Inert
Wide range of reactions
STRUCTURAL ISOMERISM – FUNCTIONAL GROUP
55. ALDEHYDES and KETONES
Name PROPANAL PROPANONE
Classification ALDEHYDE KETONE
Functional Group R-CHO R-CO-R
Physical properties polar C=O bond gives polar C=O bond gives
dipole-dipole interaction dipole-dipole interaction
Chemical properties easily oxidised to acids of undergo oxidation under
same number of carbons extreme conditions only
reduced to 1 alcohols reduced to 1° alcohols
STRUCTURAL ISOMERISM – FUNCTIONAL GROUP
56. CARBOXYLIC ACIDS and ESTERS
Name PROPANOIC ACID METHYL ETHANOATE
Classification CARBOXYLIC ACID ESTER
Functional Group R-COOH R-COOR
Physical properties O-H bond gives rise No hydrogen bonding
to hydrogen bonding. insoluble in water
get higher boiling point
and solubility in water
Chemical properties acidic fairly unreactive
reacts with alcohols hydrolysed to acids
STRUCTURAL ISOMERISM – FUNCTIONAL GROUP
57. STRUCTURAL ISOMERISM - Summary
COMPOUNDS HAVE THE SAME MOLECULAR FORMULA
BUT DIFFERENT STRUCTURAL FORMULA
Chain different arrangements of the carbon skeleton
similar chemical properties
slightly different physical properties
more branching = lower boiling point
Positional same carbon skeleton
same functional group
functional group is in a different position
similar chemical properties - slightly different physical properties
Functional Group different functional group
different chemical properties
different physical properties
• Sometimes more than one type of isomerism occurs in the same molecule.
• The more carbon atoms there are, the greater the number of possible isomers
58. STEREOISOMERISM
Molecules have the SAME MOLECULAR FORMULA but the atoms are
joined to each other in a DIFFERENT SPACIAL ARRANGEMENT - they
occupy a different position in 3-dimensional space.
There are two types...
• GEOMETRICAL ISOMERISM (E/Z)
• OPTICAL ISOMERISM (not studied at AS)
59. GEOMETRICAL ISOMERISM IN ALKENES
Introduction
• an example of stereoisomersim
• found in some, but not all, alkenes
• occurs due to the RESTRICTED ROTATION OF C=C bonds
• get two forms....
60. Naming Geometrical Stereoisomers
•Substituent groups are assigned a PRIORITY using the Cahn-Ingold-
Prelog system
•Essentially atoms with a higher atomic mass have the higher priority
•In a tie-break you move to the next atom along in the chain.
Z
The groups/atoms with the
highest priorities are on the
SAME SIDE of the double bond
E
Groups/atoms with the highest
priotrities are on OPPOSITE SIDES
across the double bond
Let us consider this example, the white sphere representing hydrogen;
green, chlorine; orange, bromine; and purple, iodine.
61. Naming Geometrical Stereoisomers
•Substituent groups are assigned a PRIORITY using the Cahn-Ingold-
Prelog system
•Essentially atoms with a higher atomic mass have the higher priority
•In a tie-break you move to the next atom along in the chain.
Z
The groups/atoms with the
highest priorities are on the
SAME SIDE of the double bond
E
Groups/atoms with the highest
priotrities are on OPPOSITE SIDES
across the double bond
Let us consider this example, the white sphere representing hydrogen;
green, chlorine; orange, bromine; and purple, iodine.
62. cis- and trans- nomenclature
cis
Groups/atoms are on the
SAME SIDE of the double bond
trans
Groups/atoms are on OPPOSITE
SIDES across the double bond
Isomers - have different physical properties - e.g. boiling points, density
- have similar chemical properties - in most cases
When two of the substituents are the SAME as each other the cis- trans-
nomenclature can be used.....
63. GEOMETRICAL ISOMERISM
RESTRICTED ROTATION OF C=C BONDS
Single covalent bonds can easily rotate. What appears to be a different structure in an
alkane is not. Due to the way structures are written out, they are the same.
ALL THESE STRUCTURES ARE THE SAME BECAUSE C-C BONDS HAVE „FREE‟ ROTATION
64. GEOMETRICAL ISOMERISM
RESTRICTED ROTATION OF C=C BONDS
C=C bonds have restricted rotation so the groups on either end of the bond are
„frozen‟ in one position; it isn‟t easy to flip between the two.
This produces two possibilities. The two structures cannot interchange easily
so the atoms in the two molecules occupy different positions in space.
65. GEOMETRICAL ISOMERISM
How to tell if it exists
Two different
atoms/groups
attached
Two different
atoms/groups
attached
Two similar
atoms/groups
attached
Two similar
atoms/groups
attached
Two similar
atoms/groups
attached
Two different
atoms/groups
attached
Two different
atoms/groups
attached
Two different
atoms/groups
attached
GEOMETRICAL ISOMERISM
GEOMETRICAL ISOMERISM
Once you get two similar
atoms/groups attached to
one end of a C=C, you
cannot have geometrical
isomerism
66. GEOMETRICAL ISOMERISM
Isomerism in butene
There are 3 structural isomers of C4H8 that are alkenes*. Of these ONLY
ONE exhibits geometrical isomerism.
BUT-1-ENE 2-METHYLPROPENEtrans BUT-2-ENEcis BUT-2-ENE
* YOU CAN GET ALKANES WITH FORMULA C4H8 IF THE CARBON ATOMS ARE IN A RING