The document discusses the properties of group 16 (chalcogen) elements (oxygen, sulfur, selenium, tellurium, polonium). Key points include:
- They have the general electronic configuration of ns2np4 and can exhibit oxidation states of -2, +2, +4, and +6.
- Properties vary periodically down the group with atomic size increasing and ionization energy/electronegativity decreasing.
- Oxygen is a gas that forms strong diatomic bonds while sulfur exists as solid rings.
- Important compounds formed include hydrides, halides like sulfur hexafluoride, and oxoacids such as sulfuric acid.
- O
The document discusses the properties of group 14 elements. It notes that carbon and silicon are non-metals, germanium is a metalloid, and tin and lead are metals. It discusses their electronic configurations, atomic radii, ionization energies, electronegativity, oxidation states, and physical properties. Carbon exhibits allotropes like diamond, graphite and buckminsterfullerenes which have the same chemical composition but different physical properties. Diamond has a high melting point and hardness due to its strong covalent bonds.
The document discusses the group 16 (oxygen family) elements of the periodic table. It covers their general electronic configuration of ns2np4, trends in periodic properties like atomic radius and ionization energy decreasing down the group. It describes the common oxidation states of -2, +2, +4 and +6. It also discusses the formation of hydrides, halides, oxides and reactions with air, acids, alkalis and metals for these chalcogen elements.
Group 15 of the periodic table contains nitrogen, phosphorus, arsenic, antimony, and bismuth. These elements share the electronic configuration of ns2np3 and can exhibit oxidation states of -3, +3, and +5, with the stability of the +5 state decreasing down the group due to the inert pair effect. The atomic radii increase down the group, while ionization energies and electronegativity decrease. Nitrogen and phosphorus are nonmetals, arsenic and antimony are metalloids, and bismuth is a metal. These trends in properties are due to the increasing size and metallic character of the elements down the group.
Crystal field theory proposes that ligands behave as point charges that create an electric field around a central metal ion. This affects the energies of the metal's d-orbitals. In an octahedral complex, ligands along the x, y, and z axes interact more strongly with the dz2 and dx2-y2 orbitals, splitting them into the higher-energy eg set. The dxy, dyz, and dxz orbitals interact less with ligands between the axes, forming the lower-energy t2g set. This splitting of orbital energies, described by the crystal field splitting parameter Δ0, helps explain differences in complexes' magnetic properties.
This document provides information on p-block elements from the chemistry class. It discusses the electronic configuration of p-block elements and their general characteristics, including variation in oxidation states, metallic and non-metallic properties, and differences in behavior between the first element of each group and other members. Specific groups like group 13 (boron family) and group 14 (carbon family) are examined in more detail regarding electronic structures, properties, and structures of compounds.
1) D-block elements are those whose last electron enters the d orbital, lying between s- and p-block elements.
2) Not all d-block elements are transition elements, which are defined as having partially filled d orbitals, while all transition elements are d-block.
3) General properties of d-block elements include high melting/boiling points due to strong metallic bonds, variable oxidation states, and many forming colored ions or complexes.
The document summarizes key points about crystal field theory and its application to octahedral complexes. It discusses the historical development of metal complexes, assumptions of crystal field theory, and how it can be applied to explain splitting of d-orbitals in an octahedral complex. It also examines factors that affect crystal field stabilization energy, including the nature of the metal ion and ligands. Finally, it describes how crystal field theory can be used to understand the color and magnetic properties of complexes.
The document discusses Crystal Field Theory, which explains the bonding in transition metal complexes. It describes how the electrostatic interaction between ligand electrons and metal d-orbitals results in a splitting of the d-orbital energies. In an octahedral field, the t2g orbitals are stabilized more than the eg orbitals. Crystal Field Theory can explain properties like electronic spectra, magnetic moments, and color of complexes. The magnitude of splitting depends on factors like the metal ion, its charge, the ligands, and can be represented by the crystal field splitting energy Δo.
The document discusses the properties of group 14 elements. It notes that carbon and silicon are non-metals, germanium is a metalloid, and tin and lead are metals. It discusses their electronic configurations, atomic radii, ionization energies, electronegativity, oxidation states, and physical properties. Carbon exhibits allotropes like diamond, graphite and buckminsterfullerenes which have the same chemical composition but different physical properties. Diamond has a high melting point and hardness due to its strong covalent bonds.
The document discusses the group 16 (oxygen family) elements of the periodic table. It covers their general electronic configuration of ns2np4, trends in periodic properties like atomic radius and ionization energy decreasing down the group. It describes the common oxidation states of -2, +2, +4 and +6. It also discusses the formation of hydrides, halides, oxides and reactions with air, acids, alkalis and metals for these chalcogen elements.
Group 15 of the periodic table contains nitrogen, phosphorus, arsenic, antimony, and bismuth. These elements share the electronic configuration of ns2np3 and can exhibit oxidation states of -3, +3, and +5, with the stability of the +5 state decreasing down the group due to the inert pair effect. The atomic radii increase down the group, while ionization energies and electronegativity decrease. Nitrogen and phosphorus are nonmetals, arsenic and antimony are metalloids, and bismuth is a metal. These trends in properties are due to the increasing size and metallic character of the elements down the group.
Crystal field theory proposes that ligands behave as point charges that create an electric field around a central metal ion. This affects the energies of the metal's d-orbitals. In an octahedral complex, ligands along the x, y, and z axes interact more strongly with the dz2 and dx2-y2 orbitals, splitting them into the higher-energy eg set. The dxy, dyz, and dxz orbitals interact less with ligands between the axes, forming the lower-energy t2g set. This splitting of orbital energies, described by the crystal field splitting parameter Δ0, helps explain differences in complexes' magnetic properties.
This document provides information on p-block elements from the chemistry class. It discusses the electronic configuration of p-block elements and their general characteristics, including variation in oxidation states, metallic and non-metallic properties, and differences in behavior between the first element of each group and other members. Specific groups like group 13 (boron family) and group 14 (carbon family) are examined in more detail regarding electronic structures, properties, and structures of compounds.
1) D-block elements are those whose last electron enters the d orbital, lying between s- and p-block elements.
2) Not all d-block elements are transition elements, which are defined as having partially filled d orbitals, while all transition elements are d-block.
3) General properties of d-block elements include high melting/boiling points due to strong metallic bonds, variable oxidation states, and many forming colored ions or complexes.
The document summarizes key points about crystal field theory and its application to octahedral complexes. It discusses the historical development of metal complexes, assumptions of crystal field theory, and how it can be applied to explain splitting of d-orbitals in an octahedral complex. It also examines factors that affect crystal field stabilization energy, including the nature of the metal ion and ligands. Finally, it describes how crystal field theory can be used to understand the color and magnetic properties of complexes.
The document discusses Crystal Field Theory, which explains the bonding in transition metal complexes. It describes how the electrostatic interaction between ligand electrons and metal d-orbitals results in a splitting of the d-orbital energies. In an octahedral field, the t2g orbitals are stabilized more than the eg orbitals. Crystal Field Theory can explain properties like electronic spectra, magnetic moments, and color of complexes. The magnitude of splitting depends on factors like the metal ion, its charge, the ligands, and can be represented by the crystal field splitting energy Δo.
The document summarizes key information about group 16 elements (oxygen, sulfur, selenium, tellurium, and polonium) and their compounds. It describes their electronic configurations, physical properties like melting points and boiling points, oxidation states, and common compounds. It provides details on the preparation, properties, and reactions of important oxygen compounds like ozone, sulfur dioxide, and sulfuric acid. It also notes some anomalies of oxygen compared to other group 16 elements.
This document provides an overview of coordination compounds. It begins by defining coordination compounds as those containing metal ions bonded to other neutral or negatively charged molecules by coordinate bonds. It then discusses various topics relating to coordination compounds, including Werner's theory of coordination chemistry, ligands, nomenclature, isomerism, and more. Key aspects covered include the defining characteristics and components of coordination compounds and complexes, common ligands, Werner's postulates explaining the electronic structure of complexes, and methods for naming coordination compounds according to IUPAC rules.
This is an effort to make ppt of p block elements , a topic in XII, chemistry(cbse) , whom as a tutor i have often felt students are horrified due to its large text size, long descriptipns, several information to be remembered and several reasonings to keep in mind.
Hope this ppt would solve thier problem of a thorough preparation of topic with all important aspects covered in the ppt.
Founder Dr Mona Srivastava
Masterchemclasses
This document discusses the characteristic properties of s-block elements, which include the alkali metals (Group IA) and alkaline earth metals (Group IIA). Some key points discussed include:
- S-block elements have their outermost shell electrons in the s orbital.
- Alkali metals react vigorously with water to form alkaline hydroxides and hydrogen gas. Reactivity increases down the group.
- They form oxides, peroxides, and superoxides with oxygen. Oxidation states include -2, -1, and -1/2.
- Properties such as ionization energy, hydration energy, and metallic character generally decrease or increase moving down a group and across a period,
This document discusses coordination chemistry and isomerism in coordination compounds. It defines molecular compounds, complex salts, and double salts formed from combinations of inorganic salts. It also discusses ligands, classifying them based on properties. Coordination number and the resulting geometries for coordination numbers 2 through 9 are described. Finally, it outlines different types of isomerism that can occur in coordination compounds, including structural, spin, and stereo isomerism.
This document discusses coordination compounds and Werner's theory of coordination compounds. It provides details on:
- Coordination compounds are molecular compounds where a central metal atom is bound to surrounding ligands by dative bonds.
- Werner's theory successfully explained the structure and bonding in coordination compounds using the concept of primary and secondary valencies on the metal center.
- Some limitations of Werner's theory are that it does not explain factors influencing complex stability or the directional properties of bonds in complexes.
Chapter 8 redox reactions ppt for class 11 CBSEritik
This document discusses oxidation-reduction (redox) reactions and oxidation states. It defines oxidation as the loss of electrons and reduction as the gain of electrons. Redox reactions involve the transfer of electrons from one atom to another. Oxidation numbers are used to track electron transfers and determine if a substance is being oxidized or reduced in a reaction. Common oxidation states of elements are discussed. Rules are provided for determining oxidation numbers based on electronegativity differences in molecules and ions.
d-block elements are those in which the valence electrons enters the d orbital. d- block elements are also called transition elements. Transition elements have partially filled d orbitals.
The elements in which the valence electron enters the s orbital are called s block elements.
The elements in which the valence electron enters the p orbital are called p block elements.
This document discusses Werner's theory of coordination compounds and bonding in coordination compounds. According to Werner's theory, metal atoms in coordination compounds have both primary and secondary valencies. Primary valencies are ionizable and satisfy the compound's oxidation state, while secondary valencies are non-ionizable and satisfy the compound's coordination number through coordinate covalent bonds with electron pair donors like ligands. The document also discusses Sidgwick's effective atomic number rule and how the valence bond theory explains the geometry, hybridization, and magnetic properties of coordination compounds.
Classification of inorganic polymers by Dr. Salma Amirsalmaamir2
The document discusses the classification of inorganic polymers. There are four main ways to classify inorganic polymers: (1) based on whether the backbone contains one element (homo-atomic) or multiple elements (hetero-atomic), (2) based on the type of reaction that forms the polymer such as condensation, addition, or coordination, (3) based on the number and type of bridging bonds between units, and (4) based on the main element that makes up the polymer such as boron, silicon, phosphorus, or sulfur. Examples are provided for common inorganic polymers that fall under each classification method.
This document discusses the properties of transition elements and their coordination compounds. It begins by defining transition elements and inner transition elements based on their location in the periodic table. It then examines the properties of transition metals such as their colored and paramagnetic nature. Several trends in atomic properties across and within periods are described, including trends in atomic size, ionization energy, and oxidation states. Coordination compounds and bonding are also briefly mentioned.
This document provides information about the boron family (Group 13) of the periodic table. It discusses the elements in Group 13 - boron (B), aluminium (Al), gallium (Ga), indium (In), and thallium (Tl). It details their electronic configurations, occurrence in nature, extraction methods, and chemical and physical properties. In particular, it focuses on the extraction of aluminium via the Bayer process and discusses the uses of aluminium and its environmental impacts.
The document discusses various factors that affect the stability of metal complexes. It explains that complexes formed with ligands having higher charge and smaller size are generally more stable. It also discusses the Irving-Williams order of stability and the factors of charge to radius ratio, electronegativity, and basicity of ligands. The chelate effect is described as an important ligand effect where multidentate ligands form more stable complexes due to entropy gains. Kinetic and thermodynamic stability are distinguished from reactivity concepts of labile and inert complexes.
Alkali metals have a single outer electron, making them highly reactive and electropositive. They are never found naturally in their elemental forms, instead occurring as oxides, halides, borates, silicates, and nitrates. Alkali metals increase in size down the group and have low ionization energies, with lithium being the smallest and most reactive and cesium being the largest and least reactive. They react vigorously with air, water, halogens, and dihydrogen to form ionic compounds. Common uses include softening hard water, manufacturing glass, detergents, and as reducing agents.
This document discusses electronic displacement in organic compounds. It describes two types of electronic displacement: permanent displacement including inductive, resonance, and mesomeric effects; and temporary displacement through electromeric effects. Inductive effects are further broken down into +I effects where groups donate electron density and -I effects where groups withdraw electron density. Examples of inductive effects include their impact on acid/base strength, stability of carbocations/carbanions, and dipole moments.
Group VII elements are called halogens. They exist as diatomic molecules (F2, Cl2, Br2, I2) and have seven electrons in their outer shell. Fluorine has the smallest atomic radius while iodine has the largest due to more electron shells. Melting and boiling points decrease from fluorine to iodine due to weaker van der Waals forces between larger molecules. Electronegativity decreases from fluorine to iodine as the nucleus attracts electrons less. Halogens can gain electrons to form ions or share electrons to form covalent bonds. More reactive halogens can displace less reactive ones from solutions.
- The elements in Group 15 show increasing covalent radius and decreasing ionization energy down the group, due to additional shells. Nitrogen behaves anomalously due to small size and high electronegativity.
- They form trihydrides (MH3), trioxides (M2O3), and pentoxides (M2O5) with decreasing acidity down the group. They also form trihalides and pentahalides.
- Oxygen is industrially produced from air or water and is essential for respiration and combustion. Ozone is a reactive allotrope produced from oxygen that is used for sterilization and bleaching.
The document discusses the properties and trends within group 17 (halogens) of the periodic table. It states that halogens have the electronic configuration of ns2np5, making them very reactive as they need only one electron to gain a stable noble gas configuration. Properties such as atomic radius, melting/boiling points, ionization energy, and electronegativity all decrease down the group as the distance from the nucleus increases. Halogens are soluble in water in the order of F2 > Cl2 > Br2 > I2. Fluorine is noted as being exceptionally small and the most electronegative element.
The document summarizes key information about group 16 elements (oxygen, sulfur, selenium, tellurium, and polonium) and their compounds. It describes their electronic configurations, physical properties like melting points and boiling points, oxidation states, and common compounds. It provides details on the preparation, properties, and reactions of important oxygen compounds like ozone, sulfur dioxide, and sulfuric acid. It also notes some anomalies of oxygen compared to other group 16 elements.
This document provides an overview of coordination compounds. It begins by defining coordination compounds as those containing metal ions bonded to other neutral or negatively charged molecules by coordinate bonds. It then discusses various topics relating to coordination compounds, including Werner's theory of coordination chemistry, ligands, nomenclature, isomerism, and more. Key aspects covered include the defining characteristics and components of coordination compounds and complexes, common ligands, Werner's postulates explaining the electronic structure of complexes, and methods for naming coordination compounds according to IUPAC rules.
This is an effort to make ppt of p block elements , a topic in XII, chemistry(cbse) , whom as a tutor i have often felt students are horrified due to its large text size, long descriptipns, several information to be remembered and several reasonings to keep in mind.
Hope this ppt would solve thier problem of a thorough preparation of topic with all important aspects covered in the ppt.
Founder Dr Mona Srivastava
Masterchemclasses
This document discusses the characteristic properties of s-block elements, which include the alkali metals (Group IA) and alkaline earth metals (Group IIA). Some key points discussed include:
- S-block elements have their outermost shell electrons in the s orbital.
- Alkali metals react vigorously with water to form alkaline hydroxides and hydrogen gas. Reactivity increases down the group.
- They form oxides, peroxides, and superoxides with oxygen. Oxidation states include -2, -1, and -1/2.
- Properties such as ionization energy, hydration energy, and metallic character generally decrease or increase moving down a group and across a period,
This document discusses coordination chemistry and isomerism in coordination compounds. It defines molecular compounds, complex salts, and double salts formed from combinations of inorganic salts. It also discusses ligands, classifying them based on properties. Coordination number and the resulting geometries for coordination numbers 2 through 9 are described. Finally, it outlines different types of isomerism that can occur in coordination compounds, including structural, spin, and stereo isomerism.
This document discusses coordination compounds and Werner's theory of coordination compounds. It provides details on:
- Coordination compounds are molecular compounds where a central metal atom is bound to surrounding ligands by dative bonds.
- Werner's theory successfully explained the structure and bonding in coordination compounds using the concept of primary and secondary valencies on the metal center.
- Some limitations of Werner's theory are that it does not explain factors influencing complex stability or the directional properties of bonds in complexes.
Chapter 8 redox reactions ppt for class 11 CBSEritik
This document discusses oxidation-reduction (redox) reactions and oxidation states. It defines oxidation as the loss of electrons and reduction as the gain of electrons. Redox reactions involve the transfer of electrons from one atom to another. Oxidation numbers are used to track electron transfers and determine if a substance is being oxidized or reduced in a reaction. Common oxidation states of elements are discussed. Rules are provided for determining oxidation numbers based on electronegativity differences in molecules and ions.
d-block elements are those in which the valence electrons enters the d orbital. d- block elements are also called transition elements. Transition elements have partially filled d orbitals.
The elements in which the valence electron enters the s orbital are called s block elements.
The elements in which the valence electron enters the p orbital are called p block elements.
This document discusses Werner's theory of coordination compounds and bonding in coordination compounds. According to Werner's theory, metal atoms in coordination compounds have both primary and secondary valencies. Primary valencies are ionizable and satisfy the compound's oxidation state, while secondary valencies are non-ionizable and satisfy the compound's coordination number through coordinate covalent bonds with electron pair donors like ligands. The document also discusses Sidgwick's effective atomic number rule and how the valence bond theory explains the geometry, hybridization, and magnetic properties of coordination compounds.
Classification of inorganic polymers by Dr. Salma Amirsalmaamir2
The document discusses the classification of inorganic polymers. There are four main ways to classify inorganic polymers: (1) based on whether the backbone contains one element (homo-atomic) or multiple elements (hetero-atomic), (2) based on the type of reaction that forms the polymer such as condensation, addition, or coordination, (3) based on the number and type of bridging bonds between units, and (4) based on the main element that makes up the polymer such as boron, silicon, phosphorus, or sulfur. Examples are provided for common inorganic polymers that fall under each classification method.
This document discusses the properties of transition elements and their coordination compounds. It begins by defining transition elements and inner transition elements based on their location in the periodic table. It then examines the properties of transition metals such as their colored and paramagnetic nature. Several trends in atomic properties across and within periods are described, including trends in atomic size, ionization energy, and oxidation states. Coordination compounds and bonding are also briefly mentioned.
This document provides information about the boron family (Group 13) of the periodic table. It discusses the elements in Group 13 - boron (B), aluminium (Al), gallium (Ga), indium (In), and thallium (Tl). It details their electronic configurations, occurrence in nature, extraction methods, and chemical and physical properties. In particular, it focuses on the extraction of aluminium via the Bayer process and discusses the uses of aluminium and its environmental impacts.
The document discusses various factors that affect the stability of metal complexes. It explains that complexes formed with ligands having higher charge and smaller size are generally more stable. It also discusses the Irving-Williams order of stability and the factors of charge to radius ratio, electronegativity, and basicity of ligands. The chelate effect is described as an important ligand effect where multidentate ligands form more stable complexes due to entropy gains. Kinetic and thermodynamic stability are distinguished from reactivity concepts of labile and inert complexes.
Alkali metals have a single outer electron, making them highly reactive and electropositive. They are never found naturally in their elemental forms, instead occurring as oxides, halides, borates, silicates, and nitrates. Alkali metals increase in size down the group and have low ionization energies, with lithium being the smallest and most reactive and cesium being the largest and least reactive. They react vigorously with air, water, halogens, and dihydrogen to form ionic compounds. Common uses include softening hard water, manufacturing glass, detergents, and as reducing agents.
This document discusses electronic displacement in organic compounds. It describes two types of electronic displacement: permanent displacement including inductive, resonance, and mesomeric effects; and temporary displacement through electromeric effects. Inductive effects are further broken down into +I effects where groups donate electron density and -I effects where groups withdraw electron density. Examples of inductive effects include their impact on acid/base strength, stability of carbocations/carbanions, and dipole moments.
Group VII elements are called halogens. They exist as diatomic molecules (F2, Cl2, Br2, I2) and have seven electrons in their outer shell. Fluorine has the smallest atomic radius while iodine has the largest due to more electron shells. Melting and boiling points decrease from fluorine to iodine due to weaker van der Waals forces between larger molecules. Electronegativity decreases from fluorine to iodine as the nucleus attracts electrons less. Halogens can gain electrons to form ions or share electrons to form covalent bonds. More reactive halogens can displace less reactive ones from solutions.
- The elements in Group 15 show increasing covalent radius and decreasing ionization energy down the group, due to additional shells. Nitrogen behaves anomalously due to small size and high electronegativity.
- They form trihydrides (MH3), trioxides (M2O3), and pentoxides (M2O5) with decreasing acidity down the group. They also form trihalides and pentahalides.
- Oxygen is industrially produced from air or water and is essential for respiration and combustion. Ozone is a reactive allotrope produced from oxygen that is used for sterilization and bleaching.
The document discusses the properties and trends within group 17 (halogens) of the periodic table. It states that halogens have the electronic configuration of ns2np5, making them very reactive as they need only one electron to gain a stable noble gas configuration. Properties such as atomic radius, melting/boiling points, ionization energy, and electronegativity all decrease down the group as the distance from the nucleus increases. Halogens are soluble in water in the order of F2 > Cl2 > Br2 > I2. Fluorine is noted as being exceptionally small and the most electronegative element.
This document provides study material for class 12 on p-block elements. It includes 16 questions with answers on topics like why pentahalides are more covalent than trihalides, the conditions required to maximize ammonia yield in the Haber process, and the nature of the bonds in SO2. It also lists important oxides, oxyacids, and properties of elements in the oxygen family and provides information on interhalogens, hydrogen halides, and xenon compounds.
12th Chemistry P-block elements Notes for JEE Main 2015 Ednexa
This document provides information about oxygen and the group 16 elements. It discusses the properties of oxygen and how it differs from other group 16 elements. Some key points include:
- Oxygen exists as a diatomic gas while other group 16 elements form polyatomic solids and liquids.
- Oxygen exhibits different oxidation states and bonding abilities compared to other group 16 elements due to its small size and high electronegativity.
- Common preparation methods for oxygen include thermal decomposition of oxygen-rich salts, metallic oxides, and the reaction of sodium peroxide or potassium permanganate with water.
This document provides information on chemistry topics including shapes of molecules, carbon structures, polar bonds, intermolecular forces, solubility, redox reactions, group 2 elements, flame tests, the halogens, indicators, kinetics, chemical equilibria, alcohols, oxidation of alcohols, haloalkanes, and nucleophilic substitution reactions. Key concepts covered include VSEPR theory, the three allotropes of carbon, electronegativity, types of intermolecular forces, factors affecting solubility, rules for oxidation numbers, reactions of group 2 elements, uses of flame tests, properties of the halogens and halides, common acid-base indicators, Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution
1. Oxidation is any chemical reaction that involves the transfer of electrons from one substance to another. Iron rusting is a common example of oxidation where iron reacts with oxygen and loses electrons.
2. There are several types of oxidative reactions including dehydrogenation, introduction of oxygen into a molecule, and combinations of dehydrogenation and oxygen introduction.
3. Liquid phase oxidation involves free radical chain reactions and is used to convert petroleum-based materials into commodity chemicals. Hydroperoxide is often a major product.
The document summarizes the properties and reactivity of alkali metals. It discusses their physical properties including softness, low density, and good heat and electricity conductivity. It describes their chemical reactivity including reactions with oxygen, halogens, nitrogen, carbon, and water. Alkali metals readily lose their outer shell electron to form +1 ions. Their reactivity increases down the group as atomic size increases. Common compounds include oxides, hydroxides, peroxides, and superoxides. Sodium and potassium are the most abundant in nature while lithium, rubidium, and cesium are rarer.
Elements of group IV A and V A compoundspascchemistry
This document discusses the elements in Group IV-A and V-A of the periodic table. It focuses on carbon and silicon, comparing their electronic configurations, allotropes, oxidation states, and ability to form compounds like oxides, hydrides, and acids. Specifically, it examines the properties and reactions of silicon hydrides called silanes, and silicon-containing compounds like carbonyl chloride and various silicates that are classified based on their structural features. It also provides information about lead compounds like litharge, red lead, and white lead, describing their preparations and uses.
This document discusses the elements in Group IV-A and V-A of the periodic table. It focuses on carbon and silicon, comparing their electronic configurations, allotropes, oxidation states, and ability to form compounds like oxides, hydrides, and acids. Specifically, it examines the properties and reactions of silicon hydrides called silanes, and silicon-containing compounds like carbonyl chloride and various silicates that are classified based on their structural features. It also provides information about lead compounds like litharge, red lead, and white lead, including their methods of preparation and uses.
This document discusses chemical reactions and equations. It defines a chemical reaction as the transformation of one or more substances into new substances through bond breaking and forming. Reactants are the original substances, while products are the new substances formed. Chemical equations represent reactions symbolically, with balanced equations showing equal numbers of each type of atom on both sides. The document describes several types of chemical reactions including combination, decomposition, displacement, double displacement, and oxidation-reduction reactions. It provides examples to illustrate characteristic properties of reactions like gas evolution, precipitation, temperature change, and state changes. Oxidation and reduction reactions are explained along with examples of their effects in corrosion and food rancidity.
1) The document discusses classical ideas of oxidation and reduction reactions by defining them as addition or removal of oxygen, hydrogen, or electronegative/electropositive elements.
2) It then moves to discussing redox reactions in terms of electron transfer, defining oxidation as loss of electrons and reduction as gain of electrons.
3) Rules for calculating oxidation numbers are provided, including that the sum of oxidation numbers in a compound or ion must equal the overall charge. Stock notation is also introduced for representing oxidation states.
4) Examples are given of identifying oxidizing and reducing agents, balancing redox reactions using the oxidation number method, and classifying reactions as redox based on changes in oxidation numbers.
The document discusses the allotropes of oxygen, sulfur, selenium, tellurium, and polonium. It provides details on the physical properties and crystal structures of different allotropes of these elements. For example, it states that oxygen exists in diatomic O2 and triatomic O3 forms, and sulfur exists in rhombic, monoclinic, plastic, liquid, colloidal, and Engel's solid forms which differ in properties like density, solubility, and crystal structure.
1. World Environment Day 2020 will be hosted in Colombia in partnership with Germany, with the theme of biodiversity.
2. During lockdowns due to the coronavirus pandemic, pollution levels decreased as industries shut down and traffic reduced, showing nature's power to recover if given the chance.
3. World Environment Day, celebrated annually on June 5th, aims to raise awareness of environmental protection.
1) Aldehydes, ketones, and carboxylic acids contain a carbonyl group (>C=O) and are known as carbonyl compounds.
2) Aldehydes have the carbonyl group attached to one alkyl/aryl group and one hydrogen. Ketones have the carbonyl group attached to two alkyl/aryl groups.
3) Carboxylic acids have the carbonyl group attached to an hydroxyl group (-COOH). Their acidity increases with more electron-withdrawing substituents which stabilize the conjugate base.
Alcohols, phenols, and ethers are classified and named according to the number and type of functional groups present. Alcohols are prepared through reduction reactions or by treating Grignard reagents with carbonyl compounds. Phenols are synthesized from haloarenes, benzenesulfonic acid, or cumene. Ethers are formed through dehydration of alcohols or Williamson synthesis. These compounds undergo substitution and elimination reactions depending on conditions. Their properties depend on factors like molecular size and presence of alkyl/aryl groups.
This document provides information on solutions, including different types of solutions classified based on the phase of the solvent and solute. It discusses liquid solutions in detail and different methods of expressing the concentration of solutions such as molarity, molality, and normality.
It describes factors that affect solubility such as nature of solute and solvent, temperature, and pressure. The document explains concepts like saturated solutions, unsaturated solutions, and solubility curves. It introduces Henry's law which states that the solubility of a gas in a liquid is directly proportional to the partial pressure of the gas.
The document also discusses Raoult's law, ideal and non-ideal solutions, and deviations from Raoult's
1) Solids have a definite shape and volume and their particles vibrate about fixed positions. In contrast, liquids and gases allow particle movement and flow.
2) Solids can be classified as crystalline or amorphous based on particle arrangement. Crystalline solids have orderly arrangements while amorphous solids do not.
3) The smallest repeating unit of a crystal lattice is the unit cell, which is defined by its edges and angles. There are seven possible primitive unit cell types and 14 total unit cell types when including centered unit cells.
CHEMICAL BONDING AND MOLECULAR STRUCTUREniralipatil
Chemical bonding can occur via ionic bonds or covalent bonds. Ionic bonds form when electrons are transferred from one atom to another, leaving cation and anion. Covalent bonds form when atoms share electrons via overlapping orbitals. The octet rule states that atoms seek to obtain eight electrons in their valence shell. Hybridization is the mixing of atomic orbitals to form new hybrid orbitals for bonding. Common hybridizations include sp, sp2, and sp3 which determine molecular geometry. Bond properties like order, length, energy are influenced by hybridization.
CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS AND PERIODICITY IN PROPERTIESniralipatil
The document discusses the classification of elements and the development of the periodic table over time. It describes early attempts at classification by Dobereiner, Newlands, and Mendeleev. Mendeleev organized the elements into the first periodic table based on increasing atomic mass. Later, Moseley established the modern periodic table based on increasing atomic number. The document outlines the structural features and characteristics of the main blocks (s, p, d, f) of the periodic table. It also defines atomic properties like atomic radius, covalent radius, and metallic radius, and how they vary within the periodic table.
General principles and processes of isolation of elementsniralipatil
The document discusses various principles and processes involved in the isolation of elements from their ores. It describes how ores are concentrated to remove gangue, then converted to oxides which are reduced to extract the pure metals. Specific processes are outlined for extracting important metals like iron, aluminium, and copper using techniques like calcination, roasting, electrolytic refining, and zone refining. Blast furnaces and Hall-Heroult cells are also summarized.
This document discusses various topics related to surface chemistry including adsorption, catalysis, and colloids. It begins by defining surface chemistry and adsorption. Important characteristics of adsorption include it being specific and spontaneous. Factors that affect adsorption are then outlined. The document also discusses desorption, sorption, physisorption and chemisorption. It then covers catalysis, including the adsorption theory of heterogeneous catalysis. Finally, it defines and compares true solutions, colloids, and suspensions.
A review of the growth of the Israel Genealogy Research Association Database Collection for the last 12 months. Our collection is now passed the 3 million mark and still growing. See which archives have contributed the most. See the different types of records we have, and which years have had records added. You can also see what we have for the future.
it describes the bony anatomy including the femoral head , acetabulum, labrum . also discusses the capsule , ligaments . muscle that act on the hip joint and the range of motion are outlined. factors affecting hip joint stability and weight transmission through the joint are summarized.
How to Add Chatter in the odoo 17 ERP ModuleCeline George
In Odoo, the chatter is like a chat tool that helps you work together on records. You can leave notes and track things, making it easier to talk with your team and partners. Inside chatter, all communication history, activity, and changes will be displayed.
Main Java[All of the Base Concepts}.docxadhitya5119
This is part 1 of my Java Learning Journey. This Contains Custom methods, classes, constructors, packages, multithreading , try- catch block, finally block and more.
How to Manage Your Lost Opportunities in Odoo 17 CRMCeline George
Odoo 17 CRM allows us to track why we lose sales opportunities with "Lost Reasons." This helps analyze our sales process and identify areas for improvement. Here's how to configure lost reasons in Odoo 17 CRM
বাংলাদেশের অর্থনৈতিক সমীক্ষা ২০২৪ [Bangladesh Economic Review 2024 Bangla.pdf] কম্পিউটার , ট্যাব ও স্মার্ট ফোন ভার্সন সহ সম্পূর্ণ বাংলা ই-বুক বা pdf বই " সুচিপত্র ...বুকমার্ক মেনু 🔖 ও হাইপার লিংক মেনু 📝👆 যুক্ত ..
আমাদের সবার জন্য খুব খুব গুরুত্বপূর্ণ একটি বই ..বিসিএস, ব্যাংক, ইউনিভার্সিটি ভর্তি ও যে কোন প্রতিযোগিতা মূলক পরীক্ষার জন্য এর খুব ইম্পরট্যান্ট একটি বিষয় ...তাছাড়া বাংলাদেশের সাম্প্রতিক যে কোন ডাটা বা তথ্য এই বইতে পাবেন ...
তাই একজন নাগরিক হিসাবে এই তথ্য গুলো আপনার জানা প্রয়োজন ...।
বিসিএস ও ব্যাংক এর লিখিত পরীক্ষা ...+এছাড়া মাধ্যমিক ও উচ্চমাধ্যমিকের স্টুডেন্টদের জন্য অনেক কাজে আসবে ...
ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, and GDPR: Best Practices for Implementation and...PECB
Denis is a dynamic and results-driven Chief Information Officer (CIO) with a distinguished career spanning information systems analysis and technical project management. With a proven track record of spearheading the design and delivery of cutting-edge Information Management solutions, he has consistently elevated business operations, streamlined reporting functions, and maximized process efficiency.
Certified as an ISO/IEC 27001: Information Security Management Systems (ISMS) Lead Implementer, Data Protection Officer, and Cyber Risks Analyst, Denis brings a heightened focus on data security, privacy, and cyber resilience to every endeavor.
His expertise extends across a diverse spectrum of reporting, database, and web development applications, underpinned by an exceptional grasp of data storage and virtualization technologies. His proficiency in application testing, database administration, and data cleansing ensures seamless execution of complex projects.
What sets Denis apart is his comprehensive understanding of Business and Systems Analysis technologies, honed through involvement in all phases of the Software Development Lifecycle (SDLC). From meticulous requirements gathering to precise analysis, innovative design, rigorous development, thorough testing, and successful implementation, he has consistently delivered exceptional results.
Throughout his career, he has taken on multifaceted roles, from leading technical project management teams to owning solutions that drive operational excellence. His conscientious and proactive approach is unwavering, whether he is working independently or collaboratively within a team. His ability to connect with colleagues on a personal level underscores his commitment to fostering a harmonious and productive workplace environment.
Date: May 29, 2024
Tags: Information Security, ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, Artificial Intelligence, GDPR
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Find out more about ISO training and certification services
Training: ISO/IEC 27001 Information Security Management System - EN | PECB
ISO/IEC 42001 Artificial Intelligence Management System - EN | PECB
General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) - Training Courses - EN | PECB
Webinars: https://pecb.com/webinars
Article: https://pecb.com/article
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
For more information about PECB:
Website: https://pecb.com/
LinkedIn: https://www.linkedin.com/company/pecb/
Facebook: https://www.facebook.com/PECBInternational/
Slideshare: http://www.slideshare.net/PECBCERTIFICATION
This slide is special for master students (MIBS & MIFB) in UUM. Also useful for readers who are interested in the topic of contemporary Islamic banking.
How to Build a Module in Odoo 17 Using the Scaffold MethodCeline George
Odoo provides an option for creating a module by using a single line command. By using this command the user can make a whole structure of a module. It is very easy for a beginner to make a module. There is no need to make each file manually. This slide will show how to create a module using the scaffold method.
Executive Directors Chat Leveraging AI for Diversity, Equity, and InclusionTechSoup
Let’s explore the intersection of technology and equity in the final session of our DEI series. Discover how AI tools, like ChatGPT, can be used to support and enhance your nonprofit's DEI initiatives. Participants will gain insights into practical AI applications and get tips for leveraging technology to advance their DEI goals.
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty, In...Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty,
International FDP on Fundamentals of Research in Social Sciences
at Integral University, Lucknow, 06.06.2024
By Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
Strategies for Effective Upskilling is a presentation by Chinwendu Peace in a Your Skill Boost Masterclass organisation by the Excellence Foundation for South Sudan on 08th and 09th June 2024 from 1 PM to 3 PM on each day.
3. •The p-Block elements: Elements belonging to
groups 13 to 18 of the periodic table are called p-
block elements.
•General electronic configuration of p-block
elements: The p-block elements are characterized
by the ns2np1-6 valence shell electronic configuration.
•Representative elements: Elements belonging to
the s and p-blocks in the periodic table are called the
representative elements or main group elements.
4.
5. Introduction of group 16
The members of this family are:
•Oxygen (O)
•Sulphur (S)
•Selenium (Se)
•Tellurium(Te)
•Polonium (Po)
Physical properties of group 16
1.The electronic configuration for them are : ns2 np4
•Oxygen (O) [He]2s2,2p4
•Sulphur (S) [Ne]3s2,3p4
•Selenium (Se) [Ar]3d104s24p4
•Tellurium(Te) [Kr]4d10,5s2,5p4
•Polonium (Po) [Xe]4f14,5d10,6s2,6p4
6. 2.Atomic size: It increases down the group as every time a
new shell is added as we move down. If we compare size of
group 16 elements with group 15 then we see that group 16
is smaller due to increased nuclear charge.
3.Ionization energy: If we compare ionization energy of
group 16 and group 15 we see, that group 16 has lower
energy than group 15 because of half filled stable electronic
configuration of group 15 i.e. ns2np3.
As we move down the group, the ionization energy
decreases because the size increases down the group.
7. 4.Electro negativity: The group 16 elements are more electro
negative than group 15 because of small size of group 16
elements. This group has second highest electro negativity in
whole periodic table.
•Oxygen is second most electronegative in periodic table.
•Down the group electro negativity decreases as size increases.
5.Oxidation states: They generally show -2 oxidation state.
•For oxygen: Common oxidation state is -2 but oxygen also show +2
oxidation state like in case of OF2 and in O2F2 the oxidation state is
+1. The oxidation state of oxygen is in +ve because oxygen is less
electronegative than fluorine.
•For sulphur: The oxidation state shown is +2, +4, +6 (because of
vacant d orbital). Like in SO2 the oxidation state of sulphur is +4 and
in sulphuric acid the oxidation state is +6 and in H2S it is -2.
•Down the group the vacant d orbital are present therefore they all
can show +2, +4, +6 oxidation states.
8. Anomalous behavior of oxygen:
•It has smallest size in its family.
•It has highest ionization energy.
•No vacant d orbital is present in it.
•It is highly electronegative in its family.
5.Electron gain enthalpy
Along period it is more negative because of attraction
towards electron because of increased nuclear charge.
Down the group electron gain enthalpy keeps on becoming
less negative because nuclear charge decreases and size
increases.
The trend that was expected
•O>S>Se>Te (wrong trend)
•O<S>Se>Te (right trend)
•Please note that oxygen has less electron gain enthalpy than sulphur because due
to small size of oxygen the incoming electron suffers repulsion therefore electron gain
enthalpy is less negative as compared to sulphur.
9. This whole group is called chalcogens as they are
ore forming.
For example:
•Al –bauxite ore
•Pb-galena
•Hg-cinnabar ore
•Zn-zinc blende and many more.
Elemental state of oxygen and sulphur
Oxygen exists as diatomic gas, whereas sulphur exists as
S8 in solid form in a puckered ring like structure as shown
below:
Sulphur (crown-like structure)
In case of oxygen pπ-pπ bonding takes place but in
sulphur no such bonding takes place .That is the
reason oxygen exist as gas and sulphur exist as solid.
10. Chemical properties of group 16
Trends in chemical reactions:
•The order of reactivity of group 16 elements is:
O>S>Se>Te
That is oxygen is quite reactive and as we move
down reactivity decreases.
•Oxygen in this group is quite reactive as the bond between
oxygen atoms is quite strong and the energy required to break
it is 493.3kJ/mol.
•Almost all the reactions of oxygen are exothermic, therefore,
the reactions are called combustion reaction.
The most stable compounds of this group are: selenides
and tellurides.
11. 1.Reaction with hydrogen: When group 16 elements combine
with hydrogen they form hydrides with general formula H2
The hydrides formed are:
All of them have bent geometry with sp3 hybridization. The geometry
shown by them is:
12. The properties of hydrides are:
•Bond angle: The bond angle decreases down the group. The order of decrease of angle is:
The reason behind this is that when size of central atom increases, lone pair will push
closer to bond pair-bond pair. Due to this bond angle decreases.
Basic character: It refers to ability of molecule to donate its lone pair. The order of
increase in basic character is:
13. •Stability: The stability of hydrides depends upon the comparability of size. The order
of stability of hydrides is:
Due to increase in size, bond length increase due to which bond dissociation energy
decrease therefore stability decrease.
•Reducing nature: The order of reducing character of hydrides are:
Out of them in case of H2Te the bond strength is low therefore reducing character is
lowest.
•Boiling point: The boiling point depends upon Vander wall force and this Vander wall force
increases with increase in size.
The order of their boiling points for 15 group hydrides is:
In case of H2O and H2S, water has higher boiling point than hydrogen sulphide because of
hydrogen bonding.
14. 2.Reaction with halogen: They react with halogen to form halides of formula EX4 , EX6 and EX2.
The order of stability oh halides are:
F>Cl>Br>I
The group 16 elements react with iodine to form tetra iodides.
•Oxygen only forms halides OF2 and O2F Out of them oxy difluoride is most stable halide.
•Sulphur forms SCl2 (sulphur dichloride), SF6 (sulphur hexafluoride) and SF4 (sulphur tetra
fluoride).
•The geometry of SF4 is tetrahedral with hybridization sp3d and geometry of SF6 is trigonal
bipyramidal with hybridization sp3d2 as shown:
Sulphur tetrafluoride
Sulphur hexafluoride
15. Hexa halides are only formed by fluorine because as size increases,
coordination number decreases, therefore others they will not form halides
Out of all halides sulphur hexahalide is most non reactive halide in this group
because it has excess octet .So, no vacant d orbital is present moreover it is
protected from all sides by fluorine .
OxO acids of sulphur
Some important oxo acids of sulphur are:
•Sulphurous acid: it is reducing in nature.
•It acts as oxidizing and reducing action.
•It bleaches the articles due to reduction.
•Its structure is given :
Sulphurous acid
16. (b)Sulphuric acid:
•It is called king of chemicals.
•It is used as an acid, oxidizing agent, dehydrating agent etc.
•It is highly viscous due to hydrogen bonding.
•It is also called as brown oil of vitrol.
•It is further concentrated and form rectified oil.
•It is prepared by contact process.
•Its structure is given below:
Sulphuric acid
(c)Thiosulphurous acid
•It contains double bond between S atoms.
•Its structure is given below:
Thiosulphurous acid
(d)Thiosulphuric acid:
•It contains one double bond S linkage between S atoms.
•Its structure is given below:
Thiosulphuric acid
17. (e)Dithionous acid
•It contains one S-S bond.
•Its structure is given:
Dithionous acid
(f)Pyrosulphuric acid
•It is known as oleum.
•It contains one S-S linkage.
•Sulphur dissolves in oleum to give clear brightly
colored solution which contains polyatomic
sulphur cations of general formula S4
2-.
•The color of solution depends upon the time of
reaction and strength of oleum.
•The bright yellow color solution has S2-
4 ions,
deep blue solution S8
2+ and bright red solution
has totally unexpected S2+
19
•Its structure is given below:
Pyrosulphuric acid
18. (g)Dithionic acid:
•It contains one S-S bond.
•Its structure is given below:
Dithionic acid
(h)Peroxymonosulphuric acid:
•It contains one peroxo group, it is also known
as Caro’s acid.
•It contains one peroxo group.
•In it the oxidation state of S is +6.
•Its structure is given below.
Peroxymonosulphuric acid
19. Di oxygen
Oxygen is 21% by volume of air.
It is prepared by Karl Wilhelm Scheele and the other
reactions were done by Priestly.
Isotopes of oxygen: O16, O17, O18
20. Preparation of dioxygen
General method of preparation:
We get oxygen whenever we heat any metal oxide like:
In laboratory we prepare oxygen by:
By heating potassium chlorate
This reaction occurs on heating, in presence of MnO2 at 420k.
21. Industrial preparation: By electrolysis of water.
The silent electric discharge is passed so that the reaction do not becomes
reversible.
H2 + O2 -------> H2O
Properties of di oxygen
•It is colorless, odorless and tasteless gas.
•It is soluble in water.
•It is highly inflammable.
•Chemical properties.
•It is neutral to litmus solution.
•It is supporter of combustion.
•It oxidizes food and produce energy.
•Reaction with metals :
• Mg + O2 ---> MgO
• Magnesium Oxide
• Al + O2 ---> Al2O3
• Aluminium Oxide
It also reacts with some compounds:
SO2 + O2 ---> SO3
NH3 + O2 ---> NO + H2O
22. Uses of di oxygen
•It is supporter of life.
•It is used in oxy acetylene flame.
•Liquid oxygen is used as rocket fuel.
•The radioactive isotope of it is used as tracer for many
chemical reactions.
•It is used to prepare synthesis gas.
Classification of oxides
We have different types of oxides
•Normal oxides
•Poly oxides
The poly oxides are of further different types:
•Peroxides: In this the O2
2- ion is present like H2O2
•Super oxides: In this the O2
- ion is present like KO2
•Sub oxides: In this oxygen has valence less than -2 like N2
•Mixed oxides: In this oxygen has oxidation number in fraction like Fe3O4
23. On the basis of nature they are classified as:
•Acidic
•Basic
•Neutral
1.Acidic oxides: That dissolve in water to give acids:
All non metallic are acidic in nature.
24. Basic oxides: That dissolves in water to give bases.
3.Amphoteric oxides: Metalloids give amphoteric oxides.
It behave as acid as well as base.
25. 4.Neutral oxides
They are very less in number. They are neither acidic nor basic
Example: laughing gas.
Ozone
It is represented as O3. It is found in upper atmosphere.
Preparation:
•It is prepared when ultraviolet rays. They react with oxygen of upper
atmosphere and splits oxygen molecule in oxygen atoms. Then this oxygen
atom combines with oxygen molecule to form ozone:
•3O2 ---------> 2O3
•Oxygen Ozone
•The reaction is endothermic approx. 142.7kJ of heat is needed.
•For preparing pure ozone we use ozoniser, in which the electric spark is
passed through oxygen gas and we get ozone.
26. Properties of ozone
Physical properties
•It is blue gas with pungent odour.
•It is heavier than air.
•It is slightly soluble in water.
•It is diamagnetic.
•The depletion of ozone is harmful for us.
Chemical properties
1.Effect of heat: If we heat ozone t decompose to give oxygen
molecule that is 2O3 ---> 3O
2.Oxidizing agent: It is stronger oxidizing agent than oxygen gas
Because it decomposes to form:
28. Sulphuric acid
Its molecular formula is H2SO4.
Preparation of sulphuric acid
It is prepared from Contact’s process that is:
1st step: Preparation of sulphur dioxide:
S + O2 ---> SO2
Sulphur Oxygen Sulphur dioxide
2nd step: Preparation of sulphur trioxide:
SO2 + O2 ----> SO3
Sulphur dioxide Oxygen Sulphur trioxide
3rd step: Reaction of sulphur trioxide with
concentrated Sulphuric acid:
SO3 + H2SO4 --> H2S2O7
Sulphur Trioxide Sulphuric Acid Olleum
4TH step: Diluting this oleum:
H2S2O7 + H2O ---> H2SO4(dilute)
Olleum Water Sulphuric Acid
This sulphuric acid formed is 99% pure.
29. It is highly reactive due to:
•Low volatility
•Strong acidic character
•Strong affinity for water
•Its ability to act as oxidizing agent
30. Introduction
The members of group 17 are:
•Fluorine(F)
•Chlorine(Cl)
•Bromine(Br)
•Iodine (I)
•Astatine (At)
Physical properties of group 17
1.1. Electronic configuration-The general electronic
configuration for this group is ns2np5
•Fluorine (F) [He]2s2,2p5
•Chlorine (Cl) [Ne]3s2,3p5
•Bromine(Br)[Ar]3d104s24p5
•Iodine (I)[Kr]4d10,5s2,5p4
•Astatine (At) [Xe]4f14,5d10,6s2,6p4
31. Atomic size: It increases down the group as every time a
new shell is added as we move down. If we compare size of
group 17 elements with group 16 then we see that group 17
is smaller due to increased nuclear charge.
2.Ionization energy: If we compare ionization energy of group
17 and group 16 we see that group 17 has higher energy than
group 16 because of smaller size of group 17 elements.
4.Electron gain enthalpy:
•Along period it is more negative because of attraction towards electron as of increased
nuclear charge.
•Down the group electron gain enthalpy keeps on becoming less negative because nuclear
charge decreases and size.
•So, the group 17 has highest electron gain enthalpy due to smallest size in periodic table.
•Please note that: Fluorine has less electron gain enthalpy than chlorine because due to
small size of oxygen the incoming electron suffers repulsion therefore, electron gain enthalpy
is less negative as compared to chlorine.
32. 5.Electro negativity: Group 17 elements are more electro negative
than group 16 because of small size of group 17 elements. This group
has highest electro negativity in whole periodic table.
Fluorine is most electronegative in periodic table. Down the group
electronegativity decreases as the size increases.
6.Melting point and boiling points: It increases down the group as
size and mass increases the Vander wall force also increases therefore
melting and boiling point increases.
6. Color: All halogens are colored like:
Fluorine: Dull yellow in color.
Chlorine: Greenish yellow.
Bromine: Reddish brown.
Iodine: Violet.
33. 8.Oxidation states: They show variable oxidation states like:
Fluorine: -1
Chlorine: -1, +1, +3, +7
Bromine : -1, +1, +3, +5, +7
Iodine: -1, +1, +3, +5, +7
•Higher oxidation states of halogens are used when they are
combining with small size highly electronegative ions.
•All halogens are very reactive and reactivity decreases down the
group.
•All act as Lewis acids as they accept electron.
•Fluorine is the strong oxidizing agent among all.
34. Anomalous behavior of Fluorine:
•Smallest size.
•Highest electronegativity.
•No vacant d orbital.
Low F-F bond dissociation energy.
Trends in chemical reactions
1.Reaction with hydrogen: They form their respective
halogen acids of formula HX that is :
HF (Hydrogen Fluroide)
HCl (HydrogenChloride)
HBr(Hydrogen Bromide)
HI (Hydrogen Iodide)
35. The properties of halogen acids are:
(a) All have linear structure with bond angle 180 degree.
(b) Out of all only HF is liquid otherwise all are gases.
HF is liquid due to hydrogen bonding they occur as associated molecules.
(c) Stability: The stability of hydrides depends upon the comparability of
size. The order of stability of hydrides is:
HF > HCl > HBr > HI
Due to increase in size, bond length increase due to which bond
dissociation energy decrease therefore stability decrease.
(d) Reducing nature: The order of reducing character of hydrides is:
HF < HCl < HBr < HI
All are Arrhenius acids. The HI has weakest bond therefore release of H is
much easier.
(e) Boiling point: The boiling point depends upon Vander wall force and
this Vander wall force increases with increase in size.
HF > HCl < HBr < HI
Due to hydrogen bonding HF has highest boiling point.
36. f)Polarity: All halogen acids are polar in nature. Greater the size of
anion more is the polarizibility more is the covalent character. Out
of all, HF is highly polar.
2.Reaction with oxygen: They react with oxygen to form their
respective oxides.
Due to less electro negativity difference the oxides are un-stable.
37. Chlorine gas (Cl2)
It was discovered by Scheele .The name of chlorine was given by Davy.
Preparation
Lab. Preparation:
•By heating pyrolusite ore that is MnO2 with HCl
(b)By heating potassium permanganate with KCl:
39. Physical properties of chlorine gas:
•It is greenish yellow gas.
•It has strong pungent suffocating odor.
•It is poisonous gas.
•It is soluble in water and the solution so
formed is chlorine water.
Chemical properties of chlorine gas
1.Effect on litmus: Dry chlorine gas has no effect on litmus
but the moist chlorine do have the effect, as it turns blue
litmus red due to formation of HCl.
2.Reaction with metals and non metals: It reacts with
metals and non metals to form respective chlorides that is
given below:
40. 1.It has great affinity for hydrogen to form HCl
H2 +Cl2 ---> 2HCl
42. With hot and concentrated NaOH:
With calcium hydroxide it forms bleaching powder:
43. Reaction with hydrocarbons: It occurs in presence of
light.
6.Bleaching action of chlorine gas
It is due to nascent oxygen produced by moist chlorine:
Colored matter + [O] --> colorless matter
44. 7.Chlorine act as oxidizing agent: It is due to
nascent oxygen.
For example:
For example:
•It oxidizes Fe2+ ---> Fe3+
45. Uses of chlorine gas
•It is used for bleaching purpose.
•It is used in extraction of gold and silver.
•It is used in manufacture of dyes etc.
•It is used in preparation of poisonous
gases like phosgene CoCl2, tear gas
CCl3NO2
46. Hydrogen chloride
It was discovered by Glauber and the Davy was the one who said
that it consist of H and Cl.
Preparation of hydrogen chloride
Preparation:
It is prepared by reacting sodium chloride with sulphuric acid and the
following reaction occurs:
47. Properties of hydrogen chloride
•It is colorless gas with pungent smell.
•It can be easily liquefied.
•It freezes to white crystalline solid.
•It is highly soluble in water.
•It readily reacts with ammonia forming
ammonium chloride:
•It forms aqua regia that is a mixture of HNO3 with HCl in
ratio of 1:3 that helps in dissolving noble metals.
•It can decompose salts of weaker acids:
48. Oxy acids of halogens
The oxy acids of halogens are:
Fluorine
•HFO(+1) Hypofluorous acid
Chlorine
•HClO (+1) Hypochlorous acid
•HClO2 (+2) Chlorous acid
•HClO3(+3) Chloric acid
•HClO4(+4) Perchloric aci
50. Properties of oxy acids of halogens
Acidic strength :
•The acidic strength of these oxy acids having same
oxidation number decreases with increase in size
because the electro negativity decreases as we go down
the group from chlorine to iodine.
•This is the reason that to withdraw electrons from
oxygen atom towards itself decreases from chlorine to
iodine.
•As a result the tendency to pull the electrons from
hydrogen decreases and the release of hydrogen ion
becomes difficult.
•The order of acidic strength is :
HClO<HClO2<HClO3<HClO4
51. Inter-halogen compounds
The compound of on halogen with the other halogen is called inter
halogen compounds.
They are formed due to large electro negativity and size difference
between halogens.
Let’s take an example: Let’s assume two halogens A and B.
B is more electronegative than A then they will form four types of
compounds:
•AB example: ClF (Chlorine monofluoride),BrF(Bromine monofluoride).
•AB3 example: ClF3 (Chlorine trifluoride), BrF3 (Bromine trifluoride).
•AB5 example: BrF5 (Bromine pentafluoride).
•AB7 example: IF7 (iodine heptafluoride).
The inter-halogen compounds are unstable and very reactive
52. Properties:
•The larger halogen always serves as a central atom.
•The bonds formed are covalent.
•As the size difference decreases stability decreases and the polarity
increases.
•Hydrolysis of these compounds always produces halide ion from
smaller halogen and oxy halide from bigger halogen.
•They are strong oxidizing agents.
53. Structure of inter-halogen compounds:
AB type – linear ( eg.CIF, BrF, BrCl, ICl, IBr, IF)
AB3 type - trigonal bi pyramidal
AB5 type - square pyramidal
AB7 type - pentagonal bipyramidal
54. Introduction
This group has noble gases or inert gases
The members of this group are:
Helium (He)
Neon (Ne)
Argon (Ar)
Krypton (Kr)
Xenon (Xe)
Radon (Rn)
55. Physical properties of group 18
1.The electronic configuration for them are ns2np6
•Helium 1s 22s2
•Neon 1s2,2s2,2p6
•Argon 1s2,2s2,2p6,3s2,3p6
•krypton1s2,2s2,2p6,3s2,3p64s23d104p6
•xenon 1s2,2s2,2p6,3s2,3p64s23d104p64d105s25p6
•radon 1s2,2s2,2p6,3s2,3p64s23d104p64d105s25p64f145d106s26p6
.Atomic size : : It increases down the group as every time a new shell is
added as we move down. They actually have Vander wall radii.
Ionization energy: They have highest ionization energy due to complete octet.
Electron gain Enthalpy: It is positive as they have complete octet so they have
no attraction for incoming electron.
56. 3.Melting and boiling point: It is low due to weak force that exists that is
Vander wall force.
Down the group size increases therefore Vander wall force also increases
so as melting and boiling point increase.
6.All noble gases are odorless and colorless and tasteless.
7.All noble gases are sparingly soluble in water.
8.All are inert gases as they have complete octet.
9.All of them are monatomic.
57. Chemical properties of group 18
•According to the stable electronic configuration fact they have no
compounds but the scientist Neil Bart let found that oxygen and
xenon are very much similar.
Like both have almost same masses. Atomic radius of both is
same.
•So, like oxygen combines with platinum fluoride in the same way
xenon also combines:
59. Xenon easily combines with fluorine to form xenon fluorides:
(a)XeF2
XeF4 xenon tetrafluoride
XeF6 xenon hexafluoride
60. XeO3 xenon trioxide XeO4 (xenon tetra oxide)
The hybridization is sp3.
The geometry is tetrahedral.
The structure is given below:
The hybridization is: sp3.
The geometry is pyramidal.
The structure is:
61. XeOF2 (xenon oxy fluoride)
The hybridization is sp3d.
The geometry is given below:
XeO2F2
The hybridization is sp3d2.
The geometry is given below:
62. Uses of noble gases
•Helium is used in weather balloons.
•A mixture of helium and oxygen is used in cylinders by divers etc.
•Liquid helium is used maintain low temperature or we can say it is cryogenic
liquid.
•Neon is used in sign board signals.
•Neon is used in filling up sodium vapor lamp.
•Neon is used in protecting electrical instruments like voltmeter.
•Argon is used in filling electric bulbs.
•Argon helps in providing inert atmosphere.
•Krypton is used in flash bulbs of high speed photography.
•Radon is used in treatment of cancer.
•Radon is used to treat metals.