The document discusses different types of nanoparticles used in drug delivery, including liposomes, solid nanoparticles, polymeric nanoparticles, nanocapsules, nanospheres, dendrimers, nanotubes, nanowires, and nanocrystals. It also describes several methods for preparing nanoparticles, such as solvent evaporation, emulsions-diffusion, nanoprecipitation, salting out, and dialysis. Evaluation methods for prepared nanoparticles are discussed, including measuring yield, drug content, particle size, zeta potential, surface morphology, polydispersity index, in-vitro release studies, and kinetic studies.
‘Targeted drug delivery system is a special form of drug delivery system where the medicament is selectively targeted or delivered only to its site of action or absorption and not to the non-target organs or tissues or cells.’
Introduction
Structure
Niosomes Vs. Liposome
Advantages & Disadvantages
Properties of Niosomes
Method of Manufacturing
Evaluation of Niosomes
Applications
Marketed products
NIOSOMES , GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF NIOSOME , TYPES OF NIOSOMES , OTHERS TYPES OF NIOSOMES , NIOSOMES VS LIPOSOMES , COMPONENTS OF NIOSOMES , Non-ionic surfactant , Cholesterol , Charge inducing molecule , METHOD OF PREPARATION , preparation of small unilamellar vesicles , Sonication , Micro fluidization , preparation of large unilamellar vesicles , Reverse Phase Evaporation , Ether Injection , preparation of Multilamellar vesicles , Hand shaking method , Trans membrane pH gradient drug uptake process (remote loading) , Miscellaneous method :Multiple membrane extrusion method , The “Bubble” Method , Formation of Niosomes From Proniosomes , SEPARATION OF UNENTRAPPED DRUGS , Gel Filtration , Dialysis , Centrifugation , FACTORS AFFECTING THE PHYSICOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF NIOSOMES , Membrane Additives , Temperature of Hydration , PROPERTIES OF DRUGS , AMOUNT AND TYPE OF SURFACTANT
Structure of Surfactants , Resistance to Osmotic Stress , Characterization of niosomes ,Therapeutic applications of Niosomes , For Controlled Release of Drugs , To Improve the Stability and Physical Properties of the Drugs , For Targeting and Retention of Drug in Blood Circulation , Proniosomes , Aspasomes , Vesicles in Water and Oil System (v/w/o) ,Bola - niosomes , Discomes , Deformable niosomes or elastic niosomes , According to the nature of lamellarity ,Small Unilamellar vesicles (SUV) 25 – 500 nm in size.,Large Unilamellar vesicles (LUV) 0.1 – 1μm in size , Multilamellar vesicles (MLV) 1-5 μm in size , According to the size:Small Niosomes (100 nm – 200 nm) , Large Niosomes (800 nm – 900 nm),Big Niosomes (2 μm – 4 μm)
‘Targeted drug delivery system is a special form of drug delivery system where the medicament is selectively targeted or delivered only to its site of action or absorption and not to the non-target organs or tissues or cells.’
Introduction
Structure
Niosomes Vs. Liposome
Advantages & Disadvantages
Properties of Niosomes
Method of Manufacturing
Evaluation of Niosomes
Applications
Marketed products
NIOSOMES , GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF NIOSOME , TYPES OF NIOSOMES , OTHERS TYPES OF NIOSOMES , NIOSOMES VS LIPOSOMES , COMPONENTS OF NIOSOMES , Non-ionic surfactant , Cholesterol , Charge inducing molecule , METHOD OF PREPARATION , preparation of small unilamellar vesicles , Sonication , Micro fluidization , preparation of large unilamellar vesicles , Reverse Phase Evaporation , Ether Injection , preparation of Multilamellar vesicles , Hand shaking method , Trans membrane pH gradient drug uptake process (remote loading) , Miscellaneous method :Multiple membrane extrusion method , The “Bubble” Method , Formation of Niosomes From Proniosomes , SEPARATION OF UNENTRAPPED DRUGS , Gel Filtration , Dialysis , Centrifugation , FACTORS AFFECTING THE PHYSICOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF NIOSOMES , Membrane Additives , Temperature of Hydration , PROPERTIES OF DRUGS , AMOUNT AND TYPE OF SURFACTANT
Structure of Surfactants , Resistance to Osmotic Stress , Characterization of niosomes ,Therapeutic applications of Niosomes , For Controlled Release of Drugs , To Improve the Stability and Physical Properties of the Drugs , For Targeting and Retention of Drug in Blood Circulation , Proniosomes , Aspasomes , Vesicles in Water and Oil System (v/w/o) ,Bola - niosomes , Discomes , Deformable niosomes or elastic niosomes , According to the nature of lamellarity ,Small Unilamellar vesicles (SUV) 25 – 500 nm in size.,Large Unilamellar vesicles (LUV) 0.1 – 1μm in size , Multilamellar vesicles (MLV) 1-5 μm in size , According to the size:Small Niosomes (100 nm – 200 nm) , Large Niosomes (800 nm – 900 nm),Big Niosomes (2 μm – 4 μm)
Formulation and evaluation of nanoparticles as a drug delivery systems Tarun Kumar Reddy
Nanomaterials fall into a size range similar to proteins and other macromolecular structures found inside living cells. As such, nanomaterials are poised to take advantage of existing cellular machinery to facilitate the delivery of drugs. Nanoparticles containing encapsulated, dispersed, absorbed or conjugated drugs have unique characteristics that can lead to enhanced performance in a variety of dosage forms.
Formulation and evaluation of nanoparticles as a drug delivery systems Tarun Kumar Reddy
Nanomaterials fall into a size range similar to proteins and other macromolecular structures found inside living cells. As such, nanomaterials are poised to take advantage of existing cellular machinery to facilitate the delivery of drugs. Nanoparticles containing encapsulated, dispersed, absorbed or conjugated drugs have unique characteristics that can lead to enhanced performance in a variety of dosage forms.
The emergence of nanotechnology is likely to have a significant impact on drug delivery sector, affecting just about every route of administration from oral to injectable, according to specialist market research firm NanoMarkets.
liposomes and nanoparticles drug delivery systemShreyaBhatt23
this presentation includes the intro duction to targeted drug delivery systems using nanoparticulate systems like liposomes, nanoparticles, mechanism of action, types, preparation, advantages, applications
Nanosponges: A novel approach for topical drug delivery systemMahewash Sana Pathan
A Nanosponge is a novel and emerging technology which offers targeted & controlled drug delivery for topical as well as oral use. Nanosponges are based on nano, polymer-based spheres that can suspend or entrap a wide variety of substances and then be incorporated into a formulated product such as a gel, lotions, cream, ointments, liquid or powder. This technology offers entrapment of ingredients and thus reduced side effects, improved stability, increases elegance and enhanced formulation flexibility. Nanosponge is the part of advance drug delivery. It is a specific aiding system for targeted drug delivery of both kind of drugs either it is lipophilic or hydrophilic in a controlled manner. These have three dimensional networks or scaffold which is filled with drug and porous insoluble nanoparticles with a crystalline or amorphous structure and have spherical shape or swelling properties.
oral delivery of macromolecule by using the nanocarriers technique
The oral route is the most common and most preferred route, due to its advantages, such as non-invasiveness, patient compliance and convenience of drug administration, cost-effectiveness, and ease of large-scale manufacturing of oral dosage forms
Nanocarriers are simply colloidal nanoparticles widely used to transport a therapeutic agent or any other substances to a target site.
The size of the nanocarriers is between 10 and 1000 (nm) in diameter. These nanocarriers are regarded as a secure medium.
The modification of the properties of nanocarriers such as surface, composition as well as its shape can enhance their activity with decreased secondary effects.
Thus, it creates a plethora of impacts in the field of drug delivery.
Hi, I'm Presents a Research article for Journal club entitled with
"3D Printing: A Case of ZipDose® Technology –World’s First 3D Printing Platform to Obtain FDA Approval for a Pharmaceutical Product"
Reference (Source article):
1. West, Thomas & Bradbury, Thomas. (2018). 3D Printing: A Case of ZipDose® Technology - World's First 3D Printing Platform to Obtain FDA Approval for a Pharmaceutical Product: Process Engineering and Additive Manufacturing. https://doi.org/10.1002/9783527813704...
2. https://www.aprecia.com/technology/zipdose
Hi,
I'm Presented a Research article for Journal club entitled with "Use of granulated sugar therapy in the management of sloughy or necrotic wounds - a pilot study".
Reference (Source article):
Murandu, M., Webber, M. A., Simms, M. H., & Dealey, C. (2011). Use of granulated sugar therapy in the management of sloughy or necrotic wounds: a pilot study. Journal of wound care, 20(5), https://doi.org/10.12968/jowc.2011.20.5.206
In this slide Structure of Skin and Hair, Hair Growth Cycle were described followed by skin related diseases such as Acne, dry skin, pigmentation, wrinkles etc.
In this slide Structure of Skin and Hair, Hair Growth Cycle were described followed by skin related diseases such as Acne, dry skin, pigmentation, wrinkles etc.
Bacteria cultivation NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENTS
NUTRITIONAL TYPES OF BACTERIA
PHOTOTROPHS
CHEMOTROPHS
AUTOTROPHS AND HETEROTROPH
OBLIGATE PARASITE
BACTERIOLOGICAL MEDIA
TYPES OF MEDIA
PHYSICAL CONDITION FOR GROWTH
CULTIVATION OF AEROBIC AND ANAEROBIC BACTERIA
Basavarajeeyam is an important text for ayurvedic physician belonging to andhra pradehs. It is a popular compendium in various parts of our country as well as in andhra pradesh. The content of the text was presented in sanskrit and telugu language (Bilingual). One of the most famous book in ayurvedic pharmaceutics and therapeutics. This book contains 25 chapters called as prakaranas. Many rasaoushadis were explained, pioneer of dhatu druti, nadi pareeksha, mutra pareeksha etc. Belongs to the period of 15-16 century. New diseases like upadamsha, phiranga rogas are explained.
These simplified slides by Dr. Sidra Arshad present an overview of the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract.
Learning objectives:
1. Enlist the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract
2. Briefly explain how these functions are carried out
3. Discuss the significance of dead space
4. Differentiate between minute ventilation and alveolar ventilation
5. Describe the cough and sneeze reflexes
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 39, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 34, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 17, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
4. Non-respiratory functions of the lungs https://academic.oup.com/bjaed/article/13/3/98/278874
Recomendações da OMS sobre cuidados maternos e neonatais para uma experiência pós-natal positiva.
Em consonância com os ODS – Objetivos do Desenvolvimento Sustentável e a Estratégia Global para a Saúde das Mulheres, Crianças e Adolescentes, e aplicando uma abordagem baseada nos direitos humanos, os esforços de cuidados pós-natais devem expandir-se para além da cobertura e da simples sobrevivência, de modo a incluir cuidados de qualidade.
Estas diretrizes visam melhorar a qualidade dos cuidados pós-natais essenciais e de rotina prestados às mulheres e aos recém-nascidos, com o objetivo final de melhorar a saúde e o bem-estar materno e neonatal.
Uma “experiência pós-natal positiva” é um resultado importante para todas as mulheres que dão à luz e para os seus recém-nascidos, estabelecendo as bases para a melhoria da saúde e do bem-estar a curto e longo prazo. Uma experiência pós-natal positiva é definida como aquela em que as mulheres, pessoas que gestam, os recém-nascidos, os casais, os pais, os cuidadores e as famílias recebem informação consistente, garantia e apoio de profissionais de saúde motivados; e onde um sistema de saúde flexível e com recursos reconheça as necessidades das mulheres e dos bebês e respeite o seu contexto cultural.
Estas diretrizes consolidadas apresentam algumas recomendações novas e já bem fundamentadas sobre cuidados pós-natais de rotina para mulheres e neonatos que recebem cuidados no pós-parto em unidades de saúde ou na comunidade, independentemente dos recursos disponíveis.
É fornecido um conjunto abrangente de recomendações para cuidados durante o período puerperal, com ênfase nos cuidados essenciais que todas as mulheres e recém-nascidos devem receber, e com a devida atenção à qualidade dos cuidados; isto é, a entrega e a experiência do cuidado recebido. Estas diretrizes atualizam e ampliam as recomendações da OMS de 2014 sobre cuidados pós-natais da mãe e do recém-nascido e complementam as atuais diretrizes da OMS sobre a gestão de complicações pós-natais.
O estabelecimento da amamentação e o manejo das principais intercorrências é contemplada.
Recomendamos muito.
Vamos discutir essas recomendações no nosso curso de pós-graduação em Aleitamento no Instituto Ciclos.
Esta publicação só está disponível em inglês até o momento.
Prof. Marcus Renato de Carvalho
www.agostodourado.com
Lung Cancer: Artificial Intelligence, Synergetics, Complex System Analysis, S...Oleg Kshivets
RESULTS: Overall life span (LS) was 2252.1±1742.5 days and cumulative 5-year survival (5YS) reached 73.2%, 10 years – 64.8%, 20 years – 42.5%. 513 LCP lived more than 5 years (LS=3124.6±1525.6 days), 148 LCP – more than 10 years (LS=5054.4±1504.1 days).199 LCP died because of LC (LS=562.7±374.5 days). 5YS of LCP after bi/lobectomies was significantly superior in comparison with LCP after pneumonectomies (78.1% vs.63.7%, P=0.00001 by log-rank test). AT significantly improved 5YS (66.3% vs. 34.8%) (P=0.00000 by log-rank test) only for LCP with N1-2. Cox modeling displayed that 5YS of LCP significantly depended on: phase transition (PT) early-invasive LC in terms of synergetics, PT N0—N12, cell ratio factors (ratio between cancer cells- CC and blood cells subpopulations), G1-3, histology, glucose, AT, blood cell circuit, prothrombin index, heparin tolerance, recalcification time (P=0.000-0.038). Neural networks, genetic algorithm selection and bootstrap simulation revealed relationships between 5YS and PT early-invasive LC (rank=1), PT N0—N12 (rank=2), thrombocytes/CC (3), erythrocytes/CC (4), eosinophils/CC (5), healthy cells/CC (6), lymphocytes/CC (7), segmented neutrophils/CC (8), stick neutrophils/CC (9), monocytes/CC (10); leucocytes/CC (11). Correct prediction of 5YS was 100% by neural networks computing (area under ROC curve=1.0; error=0.0).
CONCLUSIONS: 5YS of LCP after radical procedures significantly depended on: 1) PT early-invasive cancer; 2) PT N0--N12; 3) cell ratio factors; 4) blood cell circuit; 5) biochemical factors; 6) hemostasis system; 7) AT; 8) LC characteristics; 9) LC cell dynamics; 10) surgery type: lobectomy/pneumonectomy; 11) anthropometric data. Optimal diagnosis and treatment strategies for LC are: 1) screening and early detection of LC; 2) availability of experienced thoracic surgeons because of complexity of radical procedures; 3) aggressive en block surgery and adequate lymph node dissection for completeness; 4) precise prediction; 5) adjuvant chemoimmunoradiotherapy for LCP with unfavorable prognosis.
CDSCO and Phamacovigilance {Regulatory body in India}NEHA GUPTA
The Central Drugs Standard Control Organization (CDSCO) is India's national regulatory body for pharmaceuticals and medical devices. Operating under the Directorate General of Health Services, Ministry of Health & Family Welfare, Government of India, the CDSCO is responsible for approving new drugs, conducting clinical trials, setting standards for drugs, controlling the quality of imported drugs, and coordinating the activities of State Drug Control Organizations by providing expert advice.
Pharmacovigilance, on the other hand, is the science and activities related to the detection, assessment, understanding, and prevention of adverse effects or any other drug-related problems. The primary aim of pharmacovigilance is to ensure the safety and efficacy of medicines, thereby protecting public health.
In India, pharmacovigilance activities are monitored by the Pharmacovigilance Programme of India (PvPI), which works closely with CDSCO to collect, analyze, and act upon data regarding adverse drug reactions (ADRs). Together, they play a critical role in ensuring that the benefits of drugs outweigh their risks, maintaining high standards of patient safety, and promoting the rational use of medicines.
Flu Vaccine Alert in Bangalore Karnatakaaddon Scans
As flu season approaches, health officials in Bangalore, Karnataka, are urging residents to get their flu vaccinations. The seasonal flu, while common, can lead to severe health complications, particularly for vulnerable populations such as young children, the elderly, and those with underlying health conditions.
Dr. Vidisha Kumari, a leading epidemiologist in Bangalore, emphasizes the importance of getting vaccinated. "The flu vaccine is our best defense against the influenza virus. It not only protects individuals but also helps prevent the spread of the virus in our communities," he says.
This year, the flu season is expected to coincide with a potential increase in other respiratory illnesses. The Karnataka Health Department has launched an awareness campaign highlighting the significance of flu vaccinations. They have set up multiple vaccination centers across Bangalore, making it convenient for residents to receive their shots.
To encourage widespread vaccination, the government is also collaborating with local schools, workplaces, and community centers to facilitate vaccination drives. Special attention is being given to ensuring that the vaccine is accessible to all, including marginalized communities who may have limited access to healthcare.
Residents are reminded that the flu vaccine is safe and effective. Common side effects are mild and may include soreness at the injection site, mild fever, or muscle aches. These side effects are generally short-lived and far less severe than the flu itself.
Healthcare providers are also stressing the importance of continuing COVID-19 precautions. Wearing masks, practicing good hand hygiene, and maintaining social distancing are still crucial, especially in crowded places.
Protect yourself and your loved ones by getting vaccinated. Together, we can help keep Bangalore healthy and safe this flu season. For more information on vaccination centers and schedules, residents can visit the Karnataka Health Department’s official website or follow their social media pages.
Stay informed, stay safe, and get your flu shot today!
Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
Basavarajeeyam is a Sreshta Sangraha grantha (Compiled book ), written by Neelkanta kotturu Basavaraja Virachita. It contains 25 Prakaranas, First 24 Chapters related to Rogas& 25th to Rasadravyas.
micro teaching on communication m.sc nursing.pdfAnurag Sharma
Microteaching is a unique model of practice teaching. It is a viable instrument for the. desired change in the teaching behavior or the behavior potential which, in specified types of real. classroom situations, tends to facilitate the achievement of specified types of objectives.
1. Nano Particles
Introduction | Preparation | Evaluation
Department of Pharmaceutics, Karpagam College of
Pharmacy, Coimbatore
Navaneethakrishnan P
8/14/2019
2. Nano Particles
The prefix ―nano‖ comes from the ancient Greek vavoc through the Latin nanus meaning very
small. Nanotechnology defined as design characterization, production and applications of
structures, devices and systems by controlling shape and size at nanometer scale.
According to International System of Units (SI) nanotechnology is typically measured in
nanometers scale of 1 billionth of a meter (1nm corresponding to 10-9 m) referred as the „tiny
science‟. At this small size molecules and atoms work differently, behave as a whole unit in
terms of its properties and transport, provide a variety of advantages.
Nanoparticles (NPs) are defined as particulate dispersions or solid particles drug carrier that may
or may not be biodegradable. The drug is dissolved, entrapped, encapsulated or attached to a
nanoparticle matrix. The term nanoparticle is a combined name for both nanosphares and
nanocapsules.
Drug is confined to a cavity surrounded by a unique polymer membrane called nanocapsules,
while nanospheres are matrix systems in which the drug is physically and uniformly dispersed.
Where conventional techniques reaches their limits, nanotechnology provides opportunities for
the medical applications.
Types of Nanoparticle
1. Liposomes
2. Solid Nanoparticle
3. Polymeric nanoparticles
4. Nanocapsules
5. Nanospheres
6. Dendrimers
7. Nanotube
8. Nanowire
9. Nanocrystals
3. Figure 1: Schematic diagram representing the various types of nanoparticle use to develop MTIs.
(1A) Liposome; (1B) Polymeric nanoparticle; (1C) Dendrimer; (1D) Magnetic nanoparticle; (1E)
Micelle; (1F) Nanogel.
Liposomes
Liposomes are concentric bilayered vesicles in which an aqueous volume is entirely enclosed
by a membranous lipid bilayer mainly composed of natural or synthetic phospholipids.
Liposomes are characterized in terms of size, surface charge and number of bilayers.
It exhibits number of advantages in terms of amphiphilic character, biocompatibility, and
ease of surface modification rendering it a suitable candidate delivery system for biotech
drugs.
Liposomes have been used successfully in the field of biology, biochemistry and medicine
since its origin. These alter the pharmacokinetic profile of loaded drug to a great extent
especially in case of proteins and peptides and can be easily modified by surface attachment
of polyethylene glycol-units (PEG) making it as stealth liposomes and thus increase its
circulation half-life.
4. Solid Nanoparticle
Solid lipid nanoparticles (SLN) were developed at the beginning of the 1990s as an
alternative carrier system to emulsions, liposomes and polymeric nanoparticles as a colloidal
carrier system for controlled drug delivery.
Main reason for their development is the combination of advantages from different carriers
systems like liposomes and polymeric nanoparticles.
SLN have been developed and investigated for parenteral , pulmonal and dermal application
routes. Solid Lipid Nanoparticles consist of a solid lipid matrix, where the drug is normally
incorporated, with an average diameter below 1 μm.
To avoid aggregation and to stabilize the dispersion, different surfactants are used that have
an accepted GRAS (Generally Recognized as Safe) status.
SLN have been considered as new transfection agents using cationic lipids for the matrix
lipid composition.
Cationic solid lipid nanoparticles (SLN) for gene transfer can be formulated using the same
cationic lipids as for liposomal transfection agents.
Polymeric nanoparticles
In comparison to SLN or nanosuspensions polymeric nanoparticles (PNPs) consists of a
biodegradable polymer.
The advantages of using PNPs in drug delivery are many, being the most important that they
generally increase the stability of any volatile pharmaceutical agents and that they are easily
and cheaply fabricated in large quantities by a multitude of methods. Also, polymeric
5. nanoparticles may have engineered specificity, allowing them to deliver a higher
concentration of pharmaceutical agent to a desired location.
Polymeric nanoparticles are a broad class comprised of both vesicular systems
(nanocapsules) and matrix systems (nanospheres).
Nanocapsules
Nanocapsules are systems in which the drug is confined to a cavity surrounded by unique
polymeric membrane whereas nanospheres are systems in which the drug is dispersed
throughout the polymer matrix.
The various natural polymers like gelatin, albumin and alginate are used to prepare the
nanoparticles; however they have some inherent disadvantages like poor batchto- batch
reproducibility, prone to degradation and potential antigenicity.
Synthetic polymers used for nanoparticles preparation may be in the form of preformed
polymer e.g. polyesters like polycaprolactone (PCL), poly lactic acid (PLA) or monomers
that can be polymerized in situ e.g. poly alkyl cyanoacrylate.
The candidate drug is dissolved, entrapped, attached or encapsulated throughout or within the
polymeric shell/matrix. Depending on the method of preparation, the release characteristic of
the incorporated drug can be controlled.
Polymeric nanoparticulate systems are attractive modules for intracellular and site specific
delivery. Nanoparticles can be made to reach a target site by virtue of their size and surface
modification with a specific recognition ligand. Their surface can be easily modified and
functionalized.
6. Nanospheres
From its definition nanospheres are considered as a matrix system in which the matrix in
uniformly dispersed. These are spheric vesicular systems.
Dendrimers
Dendrimers, a unique class of polymers, are highly branched macromolecules whose size and
shape can be precisely controlled.
Dendrimers are fabricated from monomers using either convergent or divergent step growth
polymerization. The well-defined structure, mono dispersity of size, surface functionalization
capability, and stability are properties of dendrimers that make them attractive drug carrier
candidates.
Drug molecules can be incorporated into dendrimers via either complexation or
encapsulation. Dendrimers are being investigated for both drug and gene delivery, as carriers
for penicillin, and for use in anticancer therapy.
7. Nanotube
Carbon nanotubes (CNTs; also known as buckytubes) are allotropes of carbon with a
cylindrical nanostructure.
Nanotubes have been constructed with length-to diameter ratio of up to 132,000,000:1, which
is significantly larger than any other material.
These cylindrical carbon molecules have novel properties which make them potentially
useful in many applications in nanotechnology, electronics, optics, and other fields of
materials science, as well as potential uses in architectural fields.
They may also have applications in the construction of body armor. They exhibit
extraordinary strength and unique electrical properties, and are efficient thermal conductors.
Nanotubes are members of the fullerene structural family, which also includes the spherical
bucky balls. The ends of a nanotube may be capped with a hemisphere of the bucky ball
structure. Their name is derived from their size, since the diameter of a nanotube is on the
order of a few nanometers (approximately 1/50,000th of the width of a human hair), while
they can be up to 18 centimeters in length (as of 2010).
Nanotubes are categorized as single-walled nanotubes (SWNTs) and multi-walled nanotubes
(MWNTs).Chemical bonding in nanotubes is described by applied quantum chemistry,
specifically, orbital hybridization.
The chemical bonding of nanotubes is composed entirely of sp 2 bonds, similar to those of
graphite. These bonds, which are stronger than the sp3 bonds found in diamonds, provide
nanotubules with their unique strength. Moreover, nanotubes naturally align themselves into
"ropes" held together by Van der Waals forces.
Nanowire
A nanowire is a nanostructure, with the diameter of the order of a nanometer (10−9 meters).
Alternatively, nanowires can be defined as structures that have a thickness or diameter
constrained to tens of nanometers or less and an unconstrained length. At these scales,
quantum mechanical effects are important — which coined the term "quantum wires".
Many different types of nanowires exist, including metallic (e.g., Ni, Pt, Au), semiconducting
(e.g., Si, InP, GaN, etc.), and insulating (e.g., SiO2, TiO2).
8. Molecular nanowires are composed of repeating molecular units either organic (e.g. DNA) or
inorganic (e.g. Mo6S9-xIx)
The nanowires could be used, in the near future, to link tiny components into extremely small
circuits. Using nanotechnology, such components could be created out of chemical
compounds.
Nanocrystals
Nanocrystal is any nanomaterial with at least one dimension ≤ 100nm and that is single
crystalline. More properly, any material with a dimension of less than 1 micrometer, i.e.,
1000 nanometers, should be referred to as a nanoparticle, not a nanocrystal. For example, any
particle which exhibits regions of crystallinity should be termed nanoparticle or nanocluster
based on dimensions. These materials are of huge technological interest since many of their
electrical and thermodynamic properties show strong size dependence and can therefore be
controlled through careful manufacturing processes.
Crystalline nanoparticles are also of interest because they often provide single-domain
crystalline systems that can be studied to provide information that can help explain the
behavior of macroscopic samples of similar materials, without the complicating presence of
grain boundaries and other defects.
Semiconductor nanocrystals in the sub-10nm size range are often referred to as quantum
dots. Crystalline nanoparticles made with zeolite are used as a filter to turn crude oil onto
diesel fuel at an ExxonMobil oil refinery in Louisiana, a method cheaper than the
conventional way.
The term NanoCrystal is a registered trademark of Elan Pharma International Limited
(Ireland) used in relation to Elan’s proprietary milling process and nanoparticulate drug
formulations.
Preparation of Nanoparticle
Solvent Evaporation
Solvent evaporation method first developed for preparation of nanoparticles.
In this method firstly nanoemulsion formulation prepared.
Polymer dissolved in organic solvent (dichloromethane, chloroform or ethyl acetate).
9. Drug is dispersed in this solution. Then this mixuture emulsified in an aqueous phase
containing surfactant (polysorbates, poloxamers sodium dodecyl sulfates polyvinyl alcohol,
gelatin) make an oil in water emulsion by using mechanical stirring, sonication, or micro
fluidization (high-pressure homogenization through narrow channels).
After formation of emulsion the organic solvent evaporate by increased the temperature and
reduced pressure with continuous stirring.
Emulsions - Diffusion Method
This method patent by Leroux et al it is modified form of salting out method.
Polymer dissolve in water-miscible solvent (propylene carbonate, benzyl alcohol), this
solution saturated with water.
Polymer-water saturated solvent phase is emulsified in an aqueous solution containing
stabilizer.
Then solvent removed by evaporation or filtration. Advantages of this method are high
encapsulation efficiencies (generally 70%), no need for homogenization, high batch-to-batch
reproducibility, ease of scale up, simplicity, and narrow size distribution.
Some disadvantage of this method is reported high volumes of water to be eliminated from
the suspension and the leakage of water-soluble drug into the saturated aqueous external
phase during emulsification, reducing encapsulation efficiency.
10. Nanoprecipitation method
This is another method which is widely used for nanoparticle preparation which is also called
solvent displacement method. This technique was first described by Fessi at al. 1989.
In this method precipitation of polymer and drug obtained from organic solvent and the
organic solvent diffused in to the aqueous medium with or without presence of surfactant.
Tamizhrasi at al prepared Lumivudine loaded nanoparticles. Firstly drug was dissolved in
water, and then cosolvent (acetone used for make inner phase more homogeneous) was added
into this solution. Then another solution of polymer (ethyl cellulose, eudragit) and propylene
glycol with chloroform prepared, and this solution was dispersed to the drug solution. This
dispersion was slowly added to 10 ml of 70% aqueous ethanol solution.
After 5 minutes of mixing, the organic solvents were removed by evaporation at 35° under
normal pressure, nanoparticles were separated by using cooling centrifuge (10000 rpm for 20
min), supernatant were removed and nanoparticles washed with water and dried at room
temperature in a desicator.
Salting Out Method
This technique was introduced and patented by Bindschaedler et al. and Ibrahim et al.
Salting out method is very close to solvent-diffusion method. This technique based on the
separation of water-miscible solvent from aqueous solution by salting out effect (Catarina
PR et al., 2006).
In this method toxic solvents are not used. Generally acetone is used because it is totally
miscible with water and easily removed.
11. Polymer and drug dissolved in a solvent which emulsified into a aqueous solution
containing salting out agent (electrolytes, such as magnesium chloride and calcium
chloride, or non- electrolytes such as sucrose) but salting out can also be produced by
saturation of the aqueous phase using colloidal stabilizer/ emulsion stabilizer/ viscosity
increasing agent such as polyvinylpyrrolidone or hydroxyethylcellulose, PVA,
Poly(ethylene oxide), PLGA and poly(trimethylene carbonate).
After preparation of o/w emulsion diluted with addition of sufficient water to allow the
complete diffusion of acetone into the aqueous phase, thus inducing the formation of
nanospheres.
This technique does not require an increase in temperature and stirring energy required
for lower particle size. Disadvantage of this technique is exclusive application to
lipophilic drug and the extensive nanoparticles washing steps.
Dialysis
Dialysis is an effective method for preparation of nanparticles. In this method firstly polymer
(such as Poly(benzyl-l-glutamate)-b-poly(ethylene oxide), Poly(lactide)-b-poly(ethylene
oxide)) and drug dissolved in a organic solvent.
This solution added to a dialysis tube and dialysis performed against a non-solvent miscible
with the former miscible.
The displacement of the solvent inside the membrane is followed by the progressive
aggregation of polymer due to a loss of solubility and the formation of homogeneous
suspensions of nanoparticles.
12. Dialysis mechanism for formation of nanoparticle is not fully understood at present. It may
be based based on a mechanism similar to that of nanoprecipitation.
Evaluation of Nanoparticle
Yield of Nanoparticles
The yield of nanoparticles was determined by comparing the whole weight of nanoparticles
formed against the combined weight of the copolymer and drug.
Drug Content / Surface entrapment / Drug entrapment
After centrifugation amount of drug present in supernatant (w) determined by UV
spectrophotometery.
After that standard calibration curve plotted. Then amount of drug present in supernatant
subtracted from the total amount used in the preparation of nanoparticles (W). (W-w) is the
amount of drug entrapped. % drug entrapment calculated by
13. Particle Size and Zeta Potential
Value of Particle size and Zeta Potential prepared nanoparticles determined by using Malvern
Zetasizer.
Surface Morphology
Surface morphology study carried out by Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) of prepared
nanoparticle.
Polydispersity index
Polydispersity index of prepared nanoparticles was carried out by using Malvern Zetasizer.
In-vitro release Study
In-vitro drug release studies were performed in USP Type II dissolution apparatus at rotation
speed of 50 rpm. The prepared immersed in 900ml of phosphate buffer solution in a vessel,
and temperature was maintained at 37±0.20°C. Required quantity 5ml of the medium was
withdrawn at specific time periods and the same volume of dissolution medium was replaced
in the flask to maintain a constant volume. The withdrawn samples were analyzed using UV
spectrophotometer.
Kinetic Study
For estimation of the kinetic and mechanism of drug release, the result of in vitro drug
release study of nanoparticles were fitted with various kinetic equation like zero order
(cumulative % release vs. time), first order (log % drug remaining vs time), Higuchi‟s model
(cumulative % drug release vs. square root of time). r2 and k values were calculated for the
linear curve obtained by regression analysis of the above plots.
Stability of Nanoparticles
Stability studies of prepared nanoparticles determined by storing optimized formulation at
4°C ±1°C and 30°C ± 2°C in stability chamber for 90 days. The samples were analyzed after
a time period like at 0, 1, 2, and 3 months for their drug content, drug release rate (t50%) as
well as any changes in their physical appearance.
References
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and Evaluation of Aceclofenac Loaded Eudragit RS 100 Nanoparticulate System for Ocular
Delivery, Pharmaceutical Development and Technology, DOI:
10.1080/10837450.2018.1486424
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S.P Vyas, R.K Khar, Targeted & Controlled drug delivery; First Edition (2006); (331-346)
RENU TIRUWA, A review on nanoparticles – preparation and evaluation parameters, Indian
Journal of Pharmaceutical and Biological Research (IJPBR) . 2015; 4(2):27-31
P.Velavan, C.Karuppusamy and P.Venkatesan, Nanoparticles as Drug Delivery Systems, /J.
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