This document discusses polymers in nanochemistry. It begins by introducing nanochemistry and how it involves manipulating matter at the atomic and molecular scale, including the synthesis and characterization of nanoscale materials. It then discusses how polymers are formed through polymerization of monomers and some of their key properties such as molecular weight, solubility, and thermal properties. Some applications of polymers in nanotechnology are then outlined, including use in textile engineering for tissue scaffolds, drug delivery using nanotubes, immobilizing proteins for biosensors, and designing nanostructured polymers for synthetic bladder tissue. The effects of size and pressure on the glass transition temperature of nanopolymers are also briefly covered.

1. Polymers in Nano chemistry
Made by: Ayat Rabaya and Razan Khader.

2. Introduction:
Nano chemistry is a branch of Nano science, deals with the chemical
applications of nanomaterial in nanotechnology. It is the study of
manipulating matter on an atomic and molecular scale, involves the
synthesis and characterization of materials based on Nano scale size
(approximately 1-100 nm). Whereas, Nano chemical studying includes
various technologies to the Nano world such as scanning tunneling
microscope, atomic force microscope, high resolution scanning and
transmission electron microscopies, x rays, ion and electron beam
probes, and many new methods for nanofabrication and lithography.
From study of different assemblies, with the interactions of individual
atoms or multiple atoms, Nano chemistry developed various new
structures such as dendrimers, clusters, polymers, nanotubes,
nanowires, three dimensional molecular structures, chip devices for
separations and biological research.

3. It is a sub-discipline of chemistry that focuses on the chemical composition, structure,
and chemical physical properties of polymers and molecules. The principles and
methods used in polymer chemistry are also applicable across a wide range of other
chemistry sub-disciplines such as organic chemistry, analytical chemistry, and physical
chemistry. Many materials have polymeric structures, from fully inorganic metals and
ceramics to DNA and other biological molecules, however, the chemistry of polymers
is usually referred to in the context of synthetic, organic structures. Synthetic polymers
are ubiquitous in commercial materials and products in everyday use, referred to as
plastics, and rubber, and are the main components of composite materials. Polymer
chemistry can also be incorporated into the broader fields of polymer science or even
nanotechnology, both of which can be described as including polymer physics and
polymer engineering.

4. Properties :
Polymers are high molecular mass compounds formed by the polymerization of
monomers. The simple reactive molecule from which the repeating structural units of
the polymer are derived is called the monomer. A polymer can be described in many
ways: its degree of polymerization, molar mass distribution, regularity, polymers,
distribution, and degree of branching, by end groups, crosslinks, crystallization and
thermal properties such as its glass transition temperature and melting temperature.
Polymers in solution have special properties with regard to solubility, viscosity, and
gelation. Illustrative of the quantitative aspects of polymer chemistry, special attention
is paid to mean and average molecular weights M_{n} and M_{w}, respectively.

5. Applications:
The nanofibers produced in addition to hollow nanofibers, axial shell nanofibers,
nanorods and nanotubes are highly expected to have a wide range of applications
including homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysis, sensors, filtration applications as
well as optoelectronics. However, here we will consider a limited set of applications
related to the life sciences.
1-textile engineering:
This is primarily concerned with the process of replacing tissues that have been
destroyed or damaged by disease, accidents, or even industrial means. Examples of
such tissues include skin, bone, cartilage, blood vessels, and even organs. This method
involves providing a scaffold to which cells can be added and the scaffold must
provide suitable conditions for the growth of methylated tissues. Nano fibres have
been found to provide good conditions for the growth of such cells, and one of those
reasons is that fibrous structures can be found on many tissues that allow cells to
firmly attach to the fibers and grow along them as shown.

6. 2-Conduction of small independent nanotubes :
Nanotubes are also used to deliver drugs in therapy in general and in the treatment of
cancerous tumors in particular. Their role is to protect drugs from destruction in the
bloodstream, to adjust delivery with very specific release kinetics, and, ideally, to provide
targeting properties of a vector or a release mechanism by an exogenous or endogenous
stimulus.
3-Nanocarriers are rod or tubular in shape rather than spherical in shape, and may offer
additional advantages in light of drug delivery systems. These drug carrier particles have
the additional choice of axial ratio, curvature, 'invasive' hydromatic alternation, and can be
chemically modified on the inner, outer surface and at the terminal ends selectively.
Nanotubes equipped with a responsive polymer attached to the open tube allow the tuning
of access and release from the tube. In addition, the nanotubes can be equipped to
gradually appear in their chemical compounds along the tube.
Autonomous small drug release systems have been equipped based on the use of
nanotubes or nanofibers. The nanotubes and nanofibers containing fluoroalbumin with
dog-fluorescein isothiocyanate group were prepared as a treatment model, as well as
superparamagnetic nanoparticles composed of iron oxide or nickel ferrite. . We note here A,
E that iron nanoparticles are allowed, and first, as the process of guiding nanotubes to
specific locations in the body by external magnetic fields. Ultraparamagnetic particles are
known to exhibit strong interactions with external magnetic fields leading to massive
saturation magnetism. In addition, by using periodically varied magnetic fields, the
nanoparticles are heated to provide the trigger for drug release. The existence of the drug
model was established by fluorescent spectroscopy and it is also used in the analysis of the
model drug released by nanotubes.

7. 4-Immobility (paralysis) of proteins :
The axial shell fibers of nanoparticles with fluid axons and solid shells can be used to trap
biological elements such as proteins, viruses or bacteria in conditions that do not affect
their functioning. This effect can be used among a host of other biosensor applications. For
example, Green Fluorescent Protein is immobilized in nanostructured fibers with large
surface areas and short analyte distance to approach the sensor protein.
As for the use of such fibers for sensor applications, the fluorescence of the axon-cortex
fibers has been found to degrade rapidly because the fibers are dipped or immersed in a
urea-containing solution: the urea permeates through the wall into the axon where it
denatures the green fluorescent crystals (GFP). ). Here, this simple experiment reveals that
cortical axonal fibers are promising components for preparing biosensors based on their
biological components.
Polymer nanofibers, coaxial-shell fibres, nanorods and nanotubes provide a platform for a
wide range of applications both in the material sciences as well as in the life sciences. The
biological elements of different synthetic and synthetic elements, bearing special functions,
can also be incorporated into these polymer nano-systems while maintaining their specific
functions untouched as well. Biosensors, tissue engineering, drug delivery, and enzymatic
catalysis are just some of the many applications. Here, incorporating both viruses and
bacteria all the way to the organism should be no problem at all, and the applications of
these hybrid systems should be impressive and impressive.

8. 5-Previous studies investigating the design of synthetic bladder wall substitutes have
involved polymers with micro dimensional structures. Since the body is made up of
nano-structured components (e.g., extracellular matrix proteins), the focus of the
present in vitro study was to design nano-structured polymers for use as synthetic
bladder constructs that mimic the topography of natural bladder tissue. In order to
complete this task, novel nano-structured biodegradable polymeric films of poly-
lactic-co-glycolic-acid (PLGA), poly-ether-urethane (PU), and poly-caprolactone (PCL)
were fabricated and separately treated with various concentrations of NaOH (for PLGA
and PCL) and HNO3 (for PU) for select time periods. These treatments reduced the
polymer surface feature dimensions from conventional micron dimensions to
biologically inspired nanometer dimensions. Select cytocompatibility properties of
these biomaterials were tested in vitro. Results provide the first evidence that adhesion
of bladder smooth muscle cells is enhanced as polymer surface feature dimensions are
reduced into the nanometer range. In addition, surface analysis results reveal that the
polymer nanometer surface roughness is the primary design parameter that increases
bladder smooth muscle cell adhesion. For this reason, the “next generation” of tissue-
engineered bladder constructs with increased efficacy should contain surfaces with
nanometer (as opposed to micron) surface features.

9. Effects of size and pressure on nanopolymers :
The glass transition temperatures of free-standing or supported layers are dependent
on volume and pressure with low substrates interactions, with both pressure and
volume contracting. However, the glass transition temperature of the reinforced layers
with strong interaction with the substrates increases the pressure and decreases the
volume. Some models such as the two-layer model, the three-layer model, Tg (D, 0) ∝
1/D and some other models related to specific heat, density and thermal expansion
are used to obtain experimental results on nanopolymers and even to obtain some
observations such as freezing layers due to memory effects in Eigen's viscoelastic
stoichiometric models of the layers, as well as the specific effects of small glass
particles. To describe the Tg(D, 0) function of polymers more generally, a recent
standardized and simplified example based on the size-dependent crystallization
dropout temperature and Lindemann criterion is presented.
(Tg (D, 0) / Tg (∞, 0) ∝ σg2 (∞, 0) / σg2 (D, 0)where σg denotes mean-square
displacement islands of surface and inner glass particles at Tg (D, 0), α = σs2 (D, 0) /
σv2 (D, 0) with low s and v indicating Surface and volume in order. For nanoparticles, D
is often the meaning of diameter, for nanowires, D is used as the diameter, but for the
thin layer, D stands for thickness. Whereas, D0 indicates the critical diameter at which
all low-dimensional glass particles lie on its surface.

10. Methodology:
For the production of numerous and different molecular designs, the polymer is found
to be a convenient material. These molecular designs could be integrated into an
inimitable nanoparticle, and they are used to design different medical applications. For
the preparation of polymeric nanoparticles, more than a few methods were developed
during the last two decades. Based on their information, the design procedure of the
PNP can be classified, and this includes the reaction of polymerization or formation of
the nanoparticle from the macromolecule, and the ionic gelation method is also
included [9]. Based on the preparation of the nanoparticle, nanocapsules or
nanospheres are obtained. Figure 1 shows the difference in the nanosphere and
nanocapsule. The drugs confined in the cavity are defined as nanocapsules, and the
cavity is enclosed by an inimitable polymer membrane; on the contrary, the
atmosphere system in which the drug is substantially and unvaryingly dispersed is
termed as the nanosphere. Polymer nanoparticles play an important role in the field of
electronics, conducting materials, photonics, medicine, environmental technology of
the sensor system, and pollution control.

12. Nanoparticle Preparation and the Polymer:
The polymers should be adaptable (nontoxic) and antigenicity-free, as well as biodegradable and
biocompatible with the human body.
Preparation of the Nanoparticle from the Polymerization of the Monomer.
1. Emulsion PolymerizationThe fastest method of polymeric nanoparticle preparation is the emulsion
polymerization method, and it is readily ascendable. Based on the organic or aqueous phase, the
following method is divided into two categories. The dispersion of the monomer into an emulsion is
involved in the continuous organic phase; this can also be defined as the inverse microemulsion or
nonsolvent monomers [13]. To avoid aggregation at the beginning of polymerization, protective or
surface-active soluble polymers were used as a method of producing the nanoparticle. Due to its
requirements, this method is said to be of low impact; the requirements include the organic toxic
solvent, monomers, mediators, and surfactants. These parameters are neglected from the nanoparticles
prepared [14]. The alternative method provides more interest when the preparation process becomes
difficult to handle, and as a result, the nature of the polymer becomes nonbiodegradable. By the
dispersion process, nanoparticles such as polymethyl methacrylate, poly-ethyl cyanoacrylate, and
polybutyl cyanoacrylate were prepared, and in this process, the organic phase used solvents such as
cyclohexane, pentane, and toluene. In the aqueous continuous phase, emulsifier or surfactants are not
essential since in the continuous phase situation, the monomers dissolved, and this is commonly used
as an aqueous solution.Figure 3 illustrates the emulsification process. In different mechanism processes,
the polymerization process could be originated. When the monomer molecule gets dissolved in the
continuous phase, the initiator molecule strikes with it. The originator molecule may be ions or radicals.
The monomer molecule gets transformed into originating radicals by the high-energy radiation system,
and this includes g-radiation or UV rays and strong visible light [15]. A mechanism of anionic
polymerization causes monomeric ions or monomeric radicals to collide with other monomeric
molecules, causing the chain to develop. Stage parting and the creation of solid particles may occur
before or after the completion of the polymerization reaction.

14. 2. Miniemulsion PolymerizationIn recent years, the number of articles published on
polymerization based on miniemulsion and the creation of a wide range of useful polymer
materials has improved substantially. Stabilizers, water, monomer blends, surfactants, and
initiators are common ingredients in miniemulsion polymerization formulations. The
common parameters of the polymerization in miniemulsion are monomer mixture, water,
stabilizer, and originator; these were used based on the formulization. The use of a molecule
with a low molecular mass as a costabilizer [16], as well as the use of a high-shear device,
distinguishes polymerization emulsion from polymerization miniemulsion. Lot of interfacial
tension was produced in the miniemulsion process, and to attain the steady-state condition,
a great shear is required, and the miniemulsion is critically stabilized.
3. Microemulsion PolymerizationMicroemulsion polymerization is a successful method to
produce nanosized polymer particles which has received much attention. In spite of the fact
that emulsion and polymerization by microemulsion can form colloidal polymer particles
with a large molar mass, they are completely different kinetically. The particle size and
average number of strings per particle are substantially smaller in microemulsion
polymerization. An initiator, often water soluble, is added to the aqueous phase of a stable
thermodynamic microemulsion containing inflated micelle in microemulsion polymerization.
The polymerization process begins with this steady, spontaneously generated
thermodynamic state and is based on large quantities of surfactants with low interfacial
tension at the oil/water interface. Furthermore, due to the application of a large quantity of
the surfactant, the particles are completely coated with the surfactant. Subsequently, the
osmotic and elastic impact of the chains destabilized fragile microemulsions, causing
particles to grow, empty micelles to form, and secondary nucleation. Some of the critical
elements determining microemulsion polymerization kinetics and PNP characteristics
include the initiator type and concentration, surfactants, monomer, and reaction
temperature.

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