short introduction about microbiology with classification of microorganism, isolation methods, information about staining techniques. those information related to diploma students
Capsule is an layer around the bacteria cell which gives bacteria the protection and pathogenicity. Staining such an layer is difficult with the normal stains so it is necessary to stain the background and the cell itself which makes the capsule appear colourless.
Microbiology essentially began with the development of the microscope. Although others may have seen microbes before him, it was Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, a Dutch draper whose hobby was lens grinding and making microscopes, who was the first to provide proper documentation of his observations.
What is bacteria?(Structures Present in Bacteria And their Functions | Prokar...sehriqayyum
Explains what bacteria is and where it exists.
A key feature of nearly all prokaryotic cells is the cell wall, which maintains cell shape, protects the cell, and prevents it from bursting in a hypotonic environment.
The cell walls of prokaryotes differ in structure from those of eukaryotes. In eukaryotes that have cell walls, such as plants and fungi, the walls are usually made of cellulose or chitin. In contrast, most bacterial cell walls contain peptidoglycan, a polymer composed of modified sugars cross-linked by short polypeptides.
Using a technique called the Gram stain, developed by the 19th-century Danish physician Hans Christian Gram, scientists can categorize many bacterial species according to differences in cell wall composition.
Gram-positive bacteria have simpler walls with a relatively large amount of peptidoglycan. Gram-negative bacteria have less peptidoglycan
and are structurally more complex, with an outer membrane
that contains lipopolysaccharides (carbohydrates bonded
to lipids).
LEARN ABOUT:
- Bacteria
- The number of viruses on earth is staggering
- Pathogenic yeasts
- Helminths
- Harnessing bacteria
- Microbes on the tree of life
- Living and working together
- Archaea
- Protozoa
LEARN ABOUT:
- Bacteria
- The number of viruses on earth is staggering
- Pathogenic yeasts
- Helminths
- Harnessing bacteria
- Microbes on the tree of life
- Living and working together
- Archaea
- Protozoa
The bacterial flagellum has three main parts (the motor, hook, and filament) that are themselves composed of 42 different kinds of proteins.The cells of prokaryotes are simpler than those of eukaryotes
in both their internal structure and the physical arrangement
of their DNA. The genome of a prokaryote is structurally different from
a eukaryotic genome and in most cases has considerably less DNA. Prokaryotes generally have circular chromosomes, whereas eukaryotes have linear chromosomes.
short introduction about microbiology with classification of microorganism, isolation methods, information about staining techniques. those information related to diploma students
Capsule is an layer around the bacteria cell which gives bacteria the protection and pathogenicity. Staining such an layer is difficult with the normal stains so it is necessary to stain the background and the cell itself which makes the capsule appear colourless.
Microbiology essentially began with the development of the microscope. Although others may have seen microbes before him, it was Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, a Dutch draper whose hobby was lens grinding and making microscopes, who was the first to provide proper documentation of his observations.
What is bacteria?(Structures Present in Bacteria And their Functions | Prokar...sehriqayyum
Explains what bacteria is and where it exists.
A key feature of nearly all prokaryotic cells is the cell wall, which maintains cell shape, protects the cell, and prevents it from bursting in a hypotonic environment.
The cell walls of prokaryotes differ in structure from those of eukaryotes. In eukaryotes that have cell walls, such as plants and fungi, the walls are usually made of cellulose or chitin. In contrast, most bacterial cell walls contain peptidoglycan, a polymer composed of modified sugars cross-linked by short polypeptides.
Using a technique called the Gram stain, developed by the 19th-century Danish physician Hans Christian Gram, scientists can categorize many bacterial species according to differences in cell wall composition.
Gram-positive bacteria have simpler walls with a relatively large amount of peptidoglycan. Gram-negative bacteria have less peptidoglycan
and are structurally more complex, with an outer membrane
that contains lipopolysaccharides (carbohydrates bonded
to lipids).
LEARN ABOUT:
- Bacteria
- The number of viruses on earth is staggering
- Pathogenic yeasts
- Helminths
- Harnessing bacteria
- Microbes on the tree of life
- Living and working together
- Archaea
- Protozoa
LEARN ABOUT:
- Bacteria
- The number of viruses on earth is staggering
- Pathogenic yeasts
- Helminths
- Harnessing bacteria
- Microbes on the tree of life
- Living and working together
- Archaea
- Protozoa
The bacterial flagellum has three main parts (the motor, hook, and filament) that are themselves composed of 42 different kinds of proteins.The cells of prokaryotes are simpler than those of eukaryotes
in both their internal structure and the physical arrangement
of their DNA. The genome of a prokaryote is structurally different from
a eukaryotic genome and in most cases has considerably less DNA. Prokaryotes generally have circular chromosomes, whereas eukaryotes have linear chromosomes.
Ultrastructure and characterstic features of bacteria.Archana Shaw
Ultrastructure and characterstic features of bacteria: BACTERIA AS A MODEL ORGANISM
THIS WAS MY PRESENTATION TOPIC IN CLASS. THOUGHT OF SHARING IT AND HOPE IT HELPS.
This content is useful for only GNM-1 year students.
This content is prepared as per INC syllabus of GNM course for first year GNM. This content cover all points of Unit-2 in microbiology syllabus well & easy to understand for first year students. This is so well-researched and thorough content. This ppt make your study of microbiology effortless. Kindly share this content more to first year GNM students.
Introduction to Microbiology , Microbes are every where , understand them so you can live with them . I hope you like this presentation my colleagues . it is useful to students and Infection control practitioners . ! Enjoy
Bacteria are a type of biological cell. They constitute a large domain of prokaryotic microorganisms. Typically a few micrometres in length, bacteria have a number of shapes, ranging from spheres to rods and spirals. Bacteria were among the first life forms to appear on Earth, and are present in most of its habitats
Definition of social pharmacy, social pharmacy as a discipline, scope of social pharmacy and role of pharmacist in public health, National Health Mission, National rural health mission, National urban health mission
Organization and objectives of ICH, expedited reporting, ICSR, PSURs, post approval expedited reporting, pharmacovigilance Planning, good clinical practices
The Roman Empire A Historical Colossus.pdfkaushalkr1407
The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
Palestine last event orientationfvgnh .pptxRaedMohamed3
An EFL lesson about the current events in Palestine. It is intended to be for intermediate students who wish to increase their listening skills through a short lesson in power point.
We all have good and bad thoughts from time to time and situation to situation. We are bombarded daily with spiraling thoughts(both negative and positive) creating all-consuming feel , making us difficult to manage with associated suffering. Good thoughts are like our Mob Signal (Positive thought) amidst noise(negative thought) in the atmosphere. Negative thoughts like noise outweigh positive thoughts. These thoughts often create unwanted confusion, trouble, stress and frustration in our mind as well as chaos in our physical world. Negative thoughts are also known as “distorted thinking”.
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
Instructions for Submissions thorugh G- Classroom.pptxJheel Barad
This presentation provides a briefing on how to upload submissions and documents in Google Classroom. It was prepared as part of an orientation for new Sainik School in-service teacher trainees. As a training officer, my goal is to ensure that you are comfortable and proficient with this essential tool for managing assignments and fostering student engagement.
How to Make a Field invisible in Odoo 17Celine George
It is possible to hide or invisible some fields in odoo. Commonly using “invisible” attribute in the field definition to invisible the fields. This slide will show how to make a field invisible in odoo 17.
Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
The Indian economy is classified into different sectors to simplify the analysis and understanding of economic activities. For Class 10, it's essential to grasp the sectors of the Indian economy, understand their characteristics, and recognize their importance. This guide will provide detailed notes on the Sectors of the Indian Economy Class 10, using specific long-tail keywords to enhance comprehension.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
The Art Pastor's Guide to Sabbath | Steve ThomasonSteve Thomason
What is the purpose of the Sabbath Law in the Torah. It is interesting to compare how the context of the law shifts from Exodus to Deuteronomy. Who gets to rest, and why?
Welcome to TechSoup New Member Orientation and Q&A (May 2024).pdfTechSoup
In this webinar you will learn how your organization can access TechSoup's wide variety of product discount and donation programs. From hardware to software, we'll give you a tour of the tools available to help your nonprofit with productivity, collaboration, financial management, donor tracking, security, and more.
2. •Microbiology is a branch of Science
which deals with propagation, isolation
and identification of micro-organisms.
•It is the science of living organisms that
are not directly visible to naked eye but
only under the microscope.
•Medical microbiology deals with the
microorganisms which produce
infectious disease in man
3. Classification of Microorganisms
1) Prokaryotic:
i. Bacteria
ii. Rickettsias
iii. Mycoplasmas
2) Eukaryotic:
i. Algae
ii. Fungi
iii. Moulds
iv. Protozoa
Viruses
4. Prokaryotic Sl. No. Eukaryotic
Small cell size (0.2 – 2 micrometer) 01 Larger cell size (>10 micrometer)
Always unicellular 02 Often multicellular
No Nucleus 03 Always have nucleus
DNA is circular without proteins 04 DNA is linear and associated with histone
proteins
No Cytoskeleton 05 Always have cytoskeleton
Cell division by binary fission 06 Cell division by mitosis or meiosis
Cell wall made up of peptidoglycan 07 No cell wall, if present made up of
cellulose, chitin(fungi)
Ribosomes smaller size (70S) 08 Ribosomes larger size (80S)
Eg: Bacteria, mycoplasma 09 Eg: Algae, Fungi, Protozoa
5. Bacteria
• Bacteria is a unicellular microorganisms which
does not contain chlorophyll.
• The common pathogenic bacteria generally vary
in size from 0.2 to 1.5 micrometer in diameter
and 3 to 14 micrometer in length.
• They reproduce by an asexual process,
characteristically by simple cell division.
• They are present everywhere i.e. Air, water, soil,
internal and external parts of the human body,
animals and plants.
6. Classification of bacteria
1. Based on the shape of bacteria:
i. Cocci: Oval or spherical shaped
a) Cocci in pair: Diplococci
b) Cocci in group of 4:Tetrad cocci
c) Cocci in group of 8: Sarcina
d) Cocci in cluster: Staphylococci
e) Cocci in chain: streptococci
ii. Bacilli: Rod shaped eg: Brucella
iii. Vibrios: Comma shaped eg:Vibrio cholerae
iv. Spirilla: Spiral shaped , eg: Spirillum minus
v. Spirochaetes: spiral shaped (coiled hair) eg:Treponema Pallidum
7. 2. Based on gram staining:
i. Gram Positive bacteria: Streptococcus and
staphylococcus
ii. Gram negative bacteria: salmonella and
shigella
3. Based on need of oxygen or not:
a) Aerobic: Staphylococcus
b) Anaerobic: Clostridium botulinum
9. • Bacterial cell consists of cell wall made up of proteins
and carbohydrates.
• The cell wall is surrounded with a distinct sheath or
capsule.
• Inside the cell wall there is thin plasma membrane
formed by the cytoplasm.
• Cytoplasm includes ribosomes, mesosomes, granules,
vacuoles and the nuclear body.
• Some bacteria may contain whip like thread called
flagella which originate from cytoplasm. Flagella is
used for locomotion.
• Genetic material is present in the form nuclear
material composed of twisted and folded strands of
DNA.
10. Algae
• Green algae are found in fresh water either as free floating or
attached to some support.
• They are also found in rivers, ponds, ditches and other pools
of stagnant water.
• Some grows in the soil or surface of the soil or surface of the
tree or rock.
• Generally algae are green due to presence of chlorophyll
hence they can prepare their own food.
• Some algae are unicellular while as others are multicellular.
• Cell wall is composed of cellulose.
• A definite nucleus is present inside the cell.
• Reproduction may be sexual or asexual
11.
12. Fungi
• Fungi are unicellular or multicellular micro-
organisms.
• They have rigid cell wall containing
polysaccharides.
• The cytoplasmic membranes contain
steroles.
• Reproduce sexually, asexually or by both
mechanism.
13. Morphology of fungi:
• Yeast is the simplest fungus and is unicellular
and grows by budding.
• Hypha is an elongated cell which is a tubular
thread like structure.
• Mycelium is a tangled mass of hyphae.
Fungi which forms mycelia are called moulds.
Mycelium which grows below the medium is
called vegetative mycelium.
• Mycelium which grows above the surface is
called aerial mycelium.
14. Classification of fungi
A. On the basis of morphology:
1) Yeasts: unicellular, spherical in shape and
reproduce by simple budding. Eg:
Cryptococcus neoformans.
2) Yeast like fungi: grow partly as yeast and
partly as elongated cell. Eg: Candida
albicans
3) Moulds: Filamentous fungi, forms true
mycelia. Eg: Dermatophytes.
4) Dimorphic fungi: Grows as filaments or as
yeasts depending on the condition of
growth.
15. B. Systematic classification of fungi:
1) Lower fungi: form asexual
(sporangiospores) or sexual
spores (oospores and zygospores).
Eg: Phycomycetes
2) Higher fungi: Form asexual
(conidia) and sexual spores.
Eg: Ascomycetes
Basidiomycetes
Fungus imperfecti.
16. Viruses
• Viruses are the simplest and smallest
organisms.
• They are much smaller than the bacteria varying
size from 20 nm to 300nm.
• These can be seen under electron microscope.
• Virus is composed of nucleic acid DNA or RNA
but never both.
• Viruses have no metabolic machinery of their
own.
• They cannot synthesize their own protein and
nucleic acid. So they are strictly parasitic in
nature.
17. Classification of Viruses
A. On the basis of shape:
1) Spherical shape: eg: Influenza virus
2) Rod shaped: eg: tobacco virus
3) Bullet shaped: eg: Rabies virus
4) Brick shaped: eg: pox virus
18. B. On the basis of RNA or DNA:
1) DNA viruses: Poxviridae
Papoviridae
Parvoviridae
Herpesviridae
Hepadenoviridae
Adenoviridae
2) RNA viruses: Picornoviridae
Paramyxoviridae
Togaviridae
Arenoviridae
Buniaviridae
Orthomyxoviridae
Rhabdoviridae
19. Protozoa
• Protozoa are single celled or unicellular
organisms which are microscopic in size.
Classification of Protozoa:
1. Rhizopoda: Moves with the help of
Pseudopodia. Eg: Entamoeba
2. Mastigophora: Which have flagella. Eg:
Trypanosoma
3. Sporozoa: Which exhibit no movement. Eg:
Malarial parasite
4. Ciliata: Which have cilia. Eg: Balantidium Coli
20. Isolation of Bacteria:
1) Streak Culture Method
2) Pour Plate culture Method
3) Enrichment and selective media
4) Aerobic and anaerobic condition
5) Separation of vegetative and spore forming
bacteria
6) Separation of motile and non motile Bacteria
7) Animal Inoculation
8) Filtration
21. Streak Culture Method
• It is also known as surface culture method.
• Specimen to be cultured is taken in a platinum loop
then it is spread on to the surface of well dried plate
containing culture media.
• The inoculum is spread over the plate in series of
parallel lines.
• Then incubate it at 370C.
• After incubating the plate, it can be seen that more
growth can be seen at the original site of inoculation
and it becomes progressively thinner.
• Final series of streak contains well separated colonies
of Bacteria.
22. Pour Plate Culture Method
• The specimen containing the bacteria is first diluted in
tubes of agar medium a number of times.
• The inoculums is added to the medium and shaken
thoroughly to distribute the inoculum.
• The inoculum material is poured into previously cleaned
and sterilized petriplates.
• Then Incubate it of 370C for 24 hours.
• Within this time the bacterial colonies develop.
23. Isolation of Viruses:
1) Animal Inoculation:Viruses can be isolated
by inoculating them in animals like monkeys,
mice, guinea pigs and rabbits.
2) Inoculation into embryonated eggs: In
embryonated eggs, viruses can be inoculated
in :
Chorioallantoic Membrane
Yolk Sac
Amniotic Sac
3) Tissue Culture: Viruses can be cultivated in
bits of tissues, organs or cell culture like
PRIMARY, DIPLOID, CONTINUOUS CELL
CULTURE
24. Isolation of Fungi
• Fungi can be isolated by growing in
Sabourad’s Glucose agar which contains:
Peptone 40g
Dextrose 20g
Sodium Chloride 10g
Agar 2g
Water 100ml at pH 5.4
25. Isolation of Protozoa
• Amoeba – Bock and Drbohlav’s diphasic
medium.
This medium contains egg slant
with sterile serum or liver extract. Sterile
rice powder is added to this before
inoculation with feces. Incubate it at
370Cfor 48 hours
• Leishmania andTrypanosomes: Novy,
Macneal and Nicolle (NNN) Medium. It
consists of 2 parts of salt and 1 part of
defibrinated rabbits blood.
26. Staining of Bacteria
Stains are dyes or reagents used for
colouring bacteria or other
microorganisms in order to observe them
clearly and specifically under the
microscope. Eg: CrystalViolet, Methylene
blue, fuschin and Safranin.
Staining in which bacteria are in the
living state is called as vital staining.
If the bacteria are killed during staining,
the process is called supravital staining.
27. • Following are the various techniques used for
staining:
1) Simple staining
2) Differential staining:
a) Gram Staining
b) Acid fast staining
c) Ziehl-Neelsen Method
d) Staining of spores
e) Staining of capsules
3) Negative staining
4) Impregnation methods
28. Simple Staining
• When the staining solution contains only one
dye dissolved in either dilute alcohol or water
then the stains are known as simple stain and
the process is known as simple staining.
• It is also known as monochrome staining.
• The dye commonly used are crystal violet,
methylene blue, fuschin and safranin.
• It is used to study the shape, size, motility and
other morphological characteristics of
microorganisms.
29. Differential Staining
•In differential staining methods
more than one dye is used.
•These techniques are used to study
the morphological characteristics of
bacterial cells, spores and capsules.
30. Gram Staining Method
This is the most commonly used technique
for differential staining of bacteria.
It is first used by Christian Gram in 1884.
All bacteria stained by this technique can be
grouped as gram positive or gram negative.
Reagents used:
Gentian violet 0.5g in 100 ml water solution
Iodine 1g and potassium Iodide 2g in 100 ml
distilled water solution
Basic Fuschin 0.1g in 10 ml alcohol and
dissolves in 100 ml of distilled water.
31. Procedure:
Prepare a thin film smear of a test bacterium on a clean
slide.
Heat fix the film by passing through bunsen flame for 2-3
minutes or dip the film in alcohol if heat is contraindicated.
Apply gentian violet stain and allow it for 1 minute.Then
wash with water.
Apply gram’s iodine solution and leave it for 1 minute.
Wash the slide with alcohol or acetone in order to
decolourise the slide for not more than 5 seconds.
Wash the slide with water.
Counter stain with dilute carbol fuschin for 1 minute and
wash the slide under tap water and examine it with in
running water.
32. •Those bacteria which cannot be
decolorized with alcohol or acetone
and retain violet colour are known as
gram positive bacteria.
•Those bacteria which are decolorized
by alcohol or acetone and stains red
due to fuschin solution are called as
Gram negative bacteria.
33. Acid Fast Stain
• This method is first developed by Paul Ehrlich
in 1882 for differentiating the microorganisms.
• In this method dyes like malachite green and
methylene blue are used.
• When the smears are treated with these dyes
and washed with acids and alcohols they are
not decolorised and retain the stain of the dye.
• Such bacteria which are not decolorised are
known as acid fast bacteria but the bacteria
which lose the stain and get decolorised are
known as non-acid fast bacteria.
34. Ziehl – Neelsen Method
• This method is used for differentiating acid
fast bacteria like mycobacterium tuberculosis
and mycobacterium leprae.
• The reagents used for ziehl-Neelsen staining
are:
Ziehl-Neelsen’s carbol Fuchsin solution
(Basic fuschin, Absolute alcohol, 5% Phenol
in water)
Sulphuric Acid 20% solution
Alcohol 95%
Counterstain methylene blue or malachite
green.
35. Procedure
• Prepare a smear of the sputum on a slide fix it by
passing through bunsen’s flame.
• Cover the slide with strong carbol fuschin in solution
and heat until steam rises. Allow it for 5 minutes.
• Wash the smear with water.
• Cover the slide with 20% sulphuric acid for one minute
and remove the excess of the acid.
• Wash the slide with water till the colour of the smear
ceases come out.
• Counterstain the slide with methylene blue or dilute
malachite green for 30 seconds.
• Wash the slide thoroughly with water, dry it and see it
under microscope.
36. The slide will appear pink
coloured, rod shaped tubercle
bacilli scattered in the film. Non-
acid fast organisms will appear as
blue or green.
37. Staining of spores
• Prepare thin smear on glass slide and heat
fix.
• Apply primary stain, malachite green and
heat fixed to steaming.
• Wash the slide under running tap water.
• Counter stain with safranin for 4o seconds.
• Wash the slide under running tap water, dry
the slide and examine under oil immersion
lens.
The spores are stained green in colour.
38. Staining of Capsules
• Prepare a thin smear of bacterial culture.
• Stain slide with 1% crystal violet solution
for one minute.
• Wash gently with 20% copper sulphate.
• Examine under oil immersion lens.
Capsular zone is seen as a clear space
between the refractile portion and dark
background of the dye.
39. Staining of Protozoa
• Wheatley trichome stain: Simpler and
quickest method.
Smear is fixed in schaudinn’s solution.
Taken successively in different
concentrations of alcohol.
It is stained with trichome stain for 5 to 10
minutes.
Differntiated in acid alcohol.
Dryed and seen under microscope
• Iron Haemotoxylin stain
40. Staining of fungi
• A drop of 95% of alcohol is applied on the
slide.
• Fungus is kept on the slide.
• Allow the alcohol evaporate.
• Then add a drop of lactophenol cotton blue
solution.
• Apply a coverslip without allowing air
bubbles to form.
• Now see the slide under the microscope.
41. REFERENCE
• Ashok K Gupta. Handbook of Health Education and
Community Pharmacy. CBS Publishers &
Distributors Pvt. Ltd. 1st Edition.