A brief presentation on the factors affecting bioavailability of drugs along with a quick overview on what is bioequivalence, clinical equivalence, therapeutic equivalence, chemical equivalence and pharmaceutical equivalence.
DRUG INTERACTIONS (MECHANISMS OF DRUG-DRUG INTERACTIONS)N Anusha
A Drug interaction is an interaction between a drug and some other substance, such as another drug or a certain type of food, which leads to interaction that could manifest as an increase or decrease in the effectiveness or an adverse reaction or a totally new side effect that is not seen with either drug alone that can be severe enough to alter the clinical outcome.
Every time a drug is administered with any other prescription medicine, OTC products, herbs or even food we expose ourselves to the risk of a potentially dangerous interaction.
Pharmacokinetics - drug absorption, drug distribution, drug metabolism, drug ...http://neigrihms.gov.in/
A power point presentation on general aspects of Pharmacokinetics suitable for undergraduate medical students beginning to study Pharmacology. Also suitable for Post Graduate students of Pharmacology and Pharmaceutical Sciences.
A brief presentation on the factors affecting bioavailability of drugs along with a quick overview on what is bioequivalence, clinical equivalence, therapeutic equivalence, chemical equivalence and pharmaceutical equivalence.
DRUG INTERACTIONS (MECHANISMS OF DRUG-DRUG INTERACTIONS)N Anusha
A Drug interaction is an interaction between a drug and some other substance, such as another drug or a certain type of food, which leads to interaction that could manifest as an increase or decrease in the effectiveness or an adverse reaction or a totally new side effect that is not seen with either drug alone that can be severe enough to alter the clinical outcome.
Every time a drug is administered with any other prescription medicine, OTC products, herbs or even food we expose ourselves to the risk of a potentially dangerous interaction.
Pharmacokinetics - drug absorption, drug distribution, drug metabolism, drug ...http://neigrihms.gov.in/
A power point presentation on general aspects of Pharmacokinetics suitable for undergraduate medical students beginning to study Pharmacology. Also suitable for Post Graduate students of Pharmacology and Pharmaceutical Sciences.
“ Bioavailability-
means the rate and extent to which the active ingredient or active moiety is absorbed from a drug product and becomes available at the site of action."
For More Medicine Free PPT - http://playnever.blogspot.com/
For Health benefits and medicine videos Subscribe youtube channel - https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLKg-H-sMh9G01zEg4YpndngXODW2bq92w
A power point presentation on Pharmacodynamics (what drug does to the body) suitable for undergraduate medical students beginning to study Pharmacology
The presentation gives you a bird eye's view regarding basics of PK-PD modeling, its applications, types, limitations and various softwares used for the same.
“ Bioavailability-
means the rate and extent to which the active ingredient or active moiety is absorbed from a drug product and becomes available at the site of action."
For More Medicine Free PPT - http://playnever.blogspot.com/
For Health benefits and medicine videos Subscribe youtube channel - https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLKg-H-sMh9G01zEg4YpndngXODW2bq92w
A power point presentation on Pharmacodynamics (what drug does to the body) suitable for undergraduate medical students beginning to study Pharmacology
The presentation gives you a bird eye's view regarding basics of PK-PD modeling, its applications, types, limitations and various softwares used for the same.
- Routes of administration
- First pass metabolism, bioavailablilty, drug distribution,
- Drug interactions with proteins, Drug metabolism, elimination, Half-life
Pharmacodynamics and Pharmacokinetics of Synthetic CannabinoidsNMS Labs
Presented on February 21, 2012 at the AAFS 64th Annual Scientific Meeting by Barry K. Logan, PhD, DABFT, NMS Labs National Director of Forensic Services and Wendy R. Adams, Ph.D., DABFT, Forensic Toxicologist
The purpose of studying pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics is to understand the drug action, therapy, design, development and evaluation.
PHARMACOKINETIC: It is a branch of Pharmacology which deals with the study of Absorption, Distribution, Metabolism, Excretion / Elimination.
Pharmacokinetics is the study of “What the body does to the drug”
PHARMACODYNAMIC:
Pharmacodynamics is the study of biochemical and physiologic effect of drug. It is the study of “What the drug does to the body”
Pharmacokinetics (PK) is the study of how the body interacts with administered substances for the entire duration of exposure (medications for the sake of this article). This is closely related to but distinctly different from pharmacodynamics, which examines the drug’s effect on the body more closely. The four main parameters generally examined by this field include absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (ADME). Wielding an understanding of these processes allows practitioners the flexibility to prescribe and administer medications that will provide the greatest benefit at the lowest risk and allow them to make adjustments as necessary, given the varied physiology and lifestyles of patients.
When a provider prescribes medication, it is with the ultimate goal of a therapeutic outcome while minimizing adverse reactions. A thorough understanding of pharmacokinetics is essential in building treatment plans involving medications. Pharmacokinetics, as a field, attempts to summarize the movement of drugs throughout the body and the actions of the body on the drug. By using the above terms, theories, and equations, practitioners can better estimate the locations and concentrations of a drug in different areas of the body.
The appropriate concentration needed to obtain the desired effect and the amount needed for a higher chance of adverse reactions is determined through laboratory testing. Using the equations given above, a clinician can easily estimate safe medication dosing over a period of time and how long it will take for a medication to leave a patient’s system. These are, however, statistically-based estimations, influenced by differences in the drug dosage form and patient pathophysiology. This is why a deep understanding of these concepts is essential in medical practice so that improvisation is possible when the clinical situation requires it.
Introduction of Veterinary pharmacologyQaline Giigii
this course of Introduction of veterinary pharacology was presented by Dr. Osman Abdulahi Farah
Osman Shiine
at Gollis University faculty of Veterinary Medicine
2014
Introduction of Veterinary pharmacology Somaliland Dr.Osman Abdulahi FarahQaline Giigii
This course was prepared by Dr.Osman Abdulahi Farah
Cismaan shiine Lecturer of Gollis University Faculty of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine 2014
The main content of this course including introduction of Veterinary Pharmacology, division of pharmacology and list of terms of terminology about veterinay pharmacology
MOLECULAR BIOLOGY TOOLS FOR ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT and the principle behind the methodology, the methodology of the technique is described well in here...............
JMeter webinar - integration with InfluxDB and GrafanaRTTS
Watch this recorded webinar about real-time monitoring of application performance. See how to integrate Apache JMeter, the open-source leader in performance testing, with InfluxDB, the open-source time-series database, and Grafana, the open-source analytics and visualization application.
In this webinar, we will review the benefits of leveraging InfluxDB and Grafana when executing load tests and demonstrate how these tools are used to visualize performance metrics.
Length: 30 minutes
Session Overview
-------------------------------------------
During this webinar, we will cover the following topics while demonstrating the integrations of JMeter, InfluxDB and Grafana:
- What out-of-the-box solutions are available for real-time monitoring JMeter tests?
- What are the benefits of integrating InfluxDB and Grafana into the load testing stack?
- Which features are provided by Grafana?
- Demonstration of InfluxDB and Grafana using a practice web application
To view the webinar recording, go to:
https://www.rttsweb.com/jmeter-integration-webinar
Software Delivery At the Speed of AI: Inflectra Invests In AI-Powered QualityInflectra
In this insightful webinar, Inflectra explores how artificial intelligence (AI) is transforming software development and testing. Discover how AI-powered tools are revolutionizing every stage of the software development lifecycle (SDLC), from design and prototyping to testing, deployment, and monitoring.
Learn about:
• The Future of Testing: How AI is shifting testing towards verification, analysis, and higher-level skills, while reducing repetitive tasks.
• Test Automation: How AI-powered test case generation, optimization, and self-healing tests are making testing more efficient and effective.
• Visual Testing: Explore the emerging capabilities of AI in visual testing and how it's set to revolutionize UI verification.
• Inflectra's AI Solutions: See demonstrations of Inflectra's cutting-edge AI tools like the ChatGPT plugin and Azure Open AI platform, designed to streamline your testing process.
Whether you're a developer, tester, or QA professional, this webinar will give you valuable insights into how AI is shaping the future of software delivery.
Accelerate your Kubernetes clusters with Varnish CachingThijs Feryn
A presentation about the usage and availability of Varnish on Kubernetes. This talk explores the capabilities of Varnish caching and shows how to use the Varnish Helm chart to deploy it to Kubernetes.
This presentation was delivered at K8SUG Singapore. See https://feryn.eu/presentations/accelerate-your-kubernetes-clusters-with-varnish-caching-k8sug-singapore-28-2024 for more details.
State of ICS and IoT Cyber Threat Landscape Report 2024 previewPrayukth K V
The IoT and OT threat landscape report has been prepared by the Threat Research Team at Sectrio using data from Sectrio, cyber threat intelligence farming facilities spread across over 85 cities around the world. In addition, Sectrio also runs AI-based advanced threat and payload engagement facilities that serve as sinks to attract and engage sophisticated threat actors, and newer malware including new variants and latent threats that are at an earlier stage of development.
The latest edition of the OT/ICS and IoT security Threat Landscape Report 2024 also covers:
State of global ICS asset and network exposure
Sectoral targets and attacks as well as the cost of ransom
Global APT activity, AI usage, actor and tactic profiles, and implications
Rise in volumes of AI-powered cyberattacks
Major cyber events in 2024
Malware and malicious payload trends
Cyberattack types and targets
Vulnerability exploit attempts on CVEs
Attacks on counties – USA
Expansion of bot farms – how, where, and why
In-depth analysis of the cyber threat landscape across North America, South America, Europe, APAC, and the Middle East
Why are attacks on smart factories rising?
Cyber risk predictions
Axis of attacks – Europe
Systemic attacks in the Middle East
Download the full report from here:
https://sectrio.com/resources/ot-threat-landscape-reports/sectrio-releases-ot-ics-and-iot-security-threat-landscape-report-2024/
GDG Cloud Southlake #33: Boule & Rebala: Effective AppSec in SDLC using Deplo...James Anderson
Effective Application Security in Software Delivery lifecycle using Deployment Firewall and DBOM
The modern software delivery process (or the CI/CD process) includes many tools, distributed teams, open-source code, and cloud platforms. Constant focus on speed to release software to market, along with the traditional slow and manual security checks has caused gaps in continuous security as an important piece in the software supply chain. Today organizations feel more susceptible to external and internal cyber threats due to the vast attack surface in their applications supply chain and the lack of end-to-end governance and risk management.
The software team must secure its software delivery process to avoid vulnerability and security breaches. This needs to be achieved with existing tool chains and without extensive rework of the delivery processes. This talk will present strategies and techniques for providing visibility into the true risk of the existing vulnerabilities, preventing the introduction of security issues in the software, resolving vulnerabilities in production environments quickly, and capturing the deployment bill of materials (DBOM).
Speakers:
Bob Boule
Robert Boule is a technology enthusiast with PASSION for technology and making things work along with a knack for helping others understand how things work. He comes with around 20 years of solution engineering experience in application security, software continuous delivery, and SaaS platforms. He is known for his dynamic presentations in CI/CD and application security integrated in software delivery lifecycle.
Gopinath Rebala
Gopinath Rebala is the CTO of OpsMx, where he has overall responsibility for the machine learning and data processing architectures for Secure Software Delivery. Gopi also has a strong connection with our customers, leading design and architecture for strategic implementations. Gopi is a frequent speaker and well-known leader in continuous delivery and integrating security into software delivery.
DevOps and Testing slides at DASA ConnectKari Kakkonen
My and Rik Marselis slides at 30.5.2024 DASA Connect conference. We discuss about what is testing, then what is agile testing and finally what is Testing in DevOps. Finally we had lovely workshop with the participants trying to find out different ways to think about quality and testing in different parts of the DevOps infinity loop.
Builder.ai Founder Sachin Dev Duggal's Strategic Approach to Create an Innova...Ramesh Iyer
In today's fast-changing business world, Companies that adapt and embrace new ideas often need help to keep up with the competition. However, fostering a culture of innovation takes much work. It takes vision, leadership and willingness to take risks in the right proportion. Sachin Dev Duggal, co-founder of Builder.ai, has perfected the art of this balance, creating a company culture where creativity and growth are nurtured at each stage.
Transcript: Selling digital books in 2024: Insights from industry leaders - T...BookNet Canada
The publishing industry has been selling digital audiobooks and ebooks for over a decade and has found its groove. What’s changed? What has stayed the same? Where do we go from here? Join a group of leading sales peers from across the industry for a conversation about the lessons learned since the popularization of digital books, best practices, digital book supply chain management, and more.
Link to video recording: https://bnctechforum.ca/sessions/selling-digital-books-in-2024-insights-from-industry-leaders/
Presented by BookNet Canada on May 28, 2024, with support from the Department of Canadian Heritage.
The Art of the Pitch: WordPress Relationships and SalesLaura Byrne
Clients don’t know what they don’t know. What web solutions are right for them? How does WordPress come into the picture? How do you make sure you understand scope and timeline? What do you do if sometime changes?
All these questions and more will be explored as we talk about matching clients’ needs with what your agency offers without pulling teeth or pulling your hair out. Practical tips, and strategies for successful relationship building that leads to closing the deal.
Key Trends Shaping the Future of Infrastructure.pdfCheryl Hung
Keynote at DIGIT West Expo, Glasgow on 29 May 2024.
Cheryl Hung, ochery.com
Sr Director, Infrastructure Ecosystem, Arm.
The key trends across hardware, cloud and open-source; exploring how these areas are likely to mature and develop over the short and long-term, and then considering how organisations can position themselves to adapt and thrive.
Neuro-symbolic is not enough, we need neuro-*semantic*Frank van Harmelen
Neuro-symbolic (NeSy) AI is on the rise. However, simply machine learning on just any symbolic structure is not sufficient to really harvest the gains of NeSy. These will only be gained when the symbolic structures have an actual semantics. I give an operational definition of semantics as “predictable inference”.
All of this illustrated with link prediction over knowledge graphs, but the argument is general.
UiPath Test Automation using UiPath Test Suite series, part 4DianaGray10
Welcome to UiPath Test Automation using UiPath Test Suite series part 4. In this session, we will cover Test Manager overview along with SAP heatmap.
The UiPath Test Manager overview with SAP heatmap webinar offers a concise yet comprehensive exploration of the role of a Test Manager within SAP environments, coupled with the utilization of heatmaps for effective testing strategies.
Participants will gain insights into the responsibilities, challenges, and best practices associated with test management in SAP projects. Additionally, the webinar delves into the significance of heatmaps as a visual aid for identifying testing priorities, areas of risk, and resource allocation within SAP landscapes. Through this session, attendees can expect to enhance their understanding of test management principles while learning practical approaches to optimize testing processes in SAP environments using heatmap visualization techniques
What will you get from this session?
1. Insights into SAP testing best practices
2. Heatmap utilization for testing
3. Optimization of testing processes
4. Demo
Topics covered:
Execution from the test manager
Orchestrator execution result
Defect reporting
SAP heatmap example with demo
Speaker:
Deepak Rai, Automation Practice Lead, Boundaryless Group and UiPath MVP
UiPath Test Automation using UiPath Test Suite series, part 4
Introduction to pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics principles
1. Introduction to
pharmacokinetics &
pharmacodynamics principles
Presented By, Submitted To,
POORANACHITHRA M Dr.B.ANANDHA
RAJ
Ist M.Tech Biotechnology, Dept. Of Biotechnology,
Anna University-Trichy. Anna University-Trichy.
2. Pharmacokinetics And Dynamics:
The purpose of studying pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics is
to understand the drug action, therapy, design, development and
evaluation
Pharmacokinetics is what the Body Does To The Drug like how the
drug is Absorbed, Distributed, Metabolized, and Excreted by the
body – Drug disposition.
Pharmacodynamics is what the Drug Does To The Body which may
be the therapeutic effects or the adverse side effects - Drug action.
3. Effect Of A Drug
A drug’s effect is often related to its concentration at the site of action,
so it would be useful to monitor this concentration. Receptor sites of
drugs are generally inaccessible to our observations or are widely
distributed in the body, and therefore direct measurement of drug
concentrations at these sites is not practical.
So we can measure drug concentration in the blood or plasma, urine,
saliva, and other easily sampled fluids because of the Kinetic
homogeneity principle.
4. Relationship of plasma to tissue drug concentrations
Kinetic Homogeneity describes the
predictable relationship between plasma drug
concentration and concentration at the
receptor site where a given drug produces its
therapeutic effect
Changes in the plasma drug concentration
reflect changes in drug concentrations at the
receptor site, as well as in other tissues.
As the concentration of drug in plasma
increases, the concentration of drug in most
tissues will increase proportionally
7. Pharmacokinetics
Pharmacokinetics is the study of Movement of drugs in the body and it
describes the drug absorption, distribution within body, and drug
elimination over time.
It involves Four Processes
1. Absorption
2. Drug distribution
3. Metabolism
4. Drug elimination
10. 1.Absorption
It is the process of entry of drug from site of administration into
systemic circulation.
The bioavailability of the drug depends on the extent of the absorption.
Bioavailability is the percentage of drug that reaches the systemic
circulation in an unchanged form and becomes available for biological
effect following administration by any route.
Bioequivalence occurs when two formulations of the same compound
have the same bioavailability and the same rate of absorption.
12. Factors Influencing Absorption
1. Factors Related To Drug
a) Physicochemical properties
# Degree of ionization, Degree of solubility, Chemical nature,
valence
# High lipid / water partition coefficient increases absorption
b) Pharmaceutical form of drug
For example Absorption of solutions is better than suspensions or
tablets.
13. Factors Influencing Absorption
2. Factors Related To The Patient
a) Route of administration
b) Area and vascularity of absorbing surface
c) State of absorbing surface
d) Rate of general circulation
e) Presence of other drugs and other Specific factors
14. Factors Influencing Absorption
2. Factors Related To The Patient
a) Route of administration
absorption is faster from
i.v. > inhaled > i.m. > oral > dermal
Administration.
15. Factors Influencing Absorption
b) Area and vascularity of absorbing surface
Absorption is directly proportional to both area and vascularity. Thus
absorption of the drug across the intestine is more efficient than across the
stomach, as Intestine has more blood flow and much bigger surface area than
those of the Stomach.
c) State of absorbing surface
For e.g. atrophic gastritis and mal-absorption syndrome
decrease rate of absorption of drugs.
16. Factors Influencing Absorption
d) Rate of general circulation
For e.g. in shock, peripheral circulation is reduced and
I.V. route is used.
e) presence of other drugs and Specific factors
For e.g. intrinsic factor of the stomach is essential for vitamin B12
absorption from lower ileum and adrenaline induces vasoconstriction so
delay absorption of local anesthetics
17. Factors Influencing Absorption
3. First Pass Effect (pre-systemic metabolism): where drugs must pass
through gut mucosa and liver before reaching systemic circulation.
i) Gut first pass effect : e.g. benzyl penicillin is destroyed by gastric acidity,
insulin by digestive enzymes
ii) Hepatic first pass effect: e.g. lidocaine (complete destruction so not
effective orally) and propranolol (extensive destruction)
18. Distribution of Drugs
Distribution is the movement of drug from the central compartment (blood) to
peripheral compartments. Here the concentration gradient is being the
driving force for the movement from plasma to tissues.
It depends on,
Ionization,
Molecular size,
Binding to plasma proteins,
Differences in regional blood flow
Presence of tissue-specific transporters
19. Volume of distribution
It is defined as the volume of fluid required to contain the total
amount of drug Q in the body at the same concentration as that present in
the plasma Cp
Vd = Q/Cp
Importance of Vd:
1.It helps in estimating the total amount of drug in body at any time.
Amount of drug = Vd x plasma concentration of drug at certain time.
2.Vd is important to determine the loading dose
Loading dose = Vd x desired concentration
20. Metabolism (Biotransformation )
Biotransformation means chemical alteration of the drug in the body.
It is needed to render nonpolar (lipid-soluble) compounds polar (lipid
insoluble) so that they are not reabsorbed in the renal tubules and are
excreted.
The primary site for drug metabolism is liver; others are-kidney, intestine,
lungs and plasma.
Phases of biotransformation:
Phase I (Non-synthetic) reactions - A functional group is
generated or exposed-metabolite may be active or inactive.
Phase II (Synthetic) reactions – Mostly a conjugation reaction -
Metabolite is mostly inactive (except few drugs).
21. Phase I (Non-synthetic) Reactions
Introduction or unmasking of functional group by oxidation, reduction
hydrolysis, Cyclization, Decyclization
These reactions may result in
1.Drug inactivation (most of drugs)
2.Conversion of inactive drug into active metabolite (cortisone→ cortisol)
3. Conversion of active drug into active metabolite (phenacetin→
paracetamol)
4.Conversion to toxic metabolite (methanol → formaldehyde)
22. Phase II (Synthetic) reactions
Functional group or metabolite formed by phase I is masked by
conjugation with natural endogenous constituent as glucuronic acid ,
glutathione, sulphate , acetic acid, glycine or methyl group.
These reactions usually result in drug inactivation with few exceptions e.g.
morphine-6-conjugate is active
Most of drugs pass through phase I only or phase II only or phase I then
phase II.
Some drugs as isoniazid passes first through phase II then phase I
(acetylated then hydrolyzed to isonicotinic acid).
23. Factors affecting drug metabolism
1. Drugs
2. Genetic variation
3. Nutritional state
4. Dosage
5. Age
24. Factors affecting drug metabolism
1.Drugs
One drug can competitively inhibit the metabolism of another if it
utilizes the same enzyme or cofactors either by Enzyme induction or by
Enzyme inhibition
i) Enzyme induction - Some drugs increase the synthesis of microsomal
enzyme protein, or decrease degradation of enzymes.
ii) Enzyme inhibition (drugs that inhibit drug metabolism): it occurs faster
than enzyme induction and causes serious drug interactions
25. Factors affecting drug metabolism
2.Genetic variation
The most important factor is genetically determined polymorphisms.
(Ex) Isoniazid is metabolized in the liver via acetylation. There are two forms
(slow and fast) of the enzyme responsible for acetylation (N-acetyl
transferase ), thus some patients metabolize the drug quicker than others.
Slow acetylators are prone to peripheral neuritis while fast acetylators are
prone to hepatic toxicity
3.Nutritional state
Conjugating agents are sensitive to body nutrient level. For
example, low protein diet can decrease glycine.
26. Factors affecting drug metabolism
4.Dosage
High dose can saturate metabolic enzyme leading to drug
accumulation. If metabolic pathway is saturated due to high dose or depletion
of endogenous conjugate, an alternative pathway may appear e.g.
paracetamol may undergo N-hydroxylation to hepatotoxic metabolite.
5.Age
Drug metabolism is reduced in extremes of age (old patients and
infants).
27. Elimination Or Excretion
Elimination-Termination of Drug Action by which a drug or metabolite is
eliminated from the body. Drugs and their metabolites are excreted in Urine,
Faeces, Exhaled air, Saliva and sweat.
Two-stage kidney process (filter, absorption)
Metabolites that are poorly reabsorbed by kidney are excreted in urine.
Some drugs have active (lipid soluble) metabolites that are
reabsorbed into circulation (e.g., pro-drugs)
Other routes of elimination: lungs, bile, skin
28. Terminologies In Pharmacokinetics
1. Elimination Half-Life - time required for drug blood levels to be
reduced by 50%
Dose
2. Plasma Concentration
3. Clearance = Volume of blood cleared of drug per unit time
Volume of Distribution =
(theoretical volume that
would have to be available
for drug to disperse)
29. Drug Interactions
A pharmacokinetic interaction implies that the drug producing the
interaction (the ‘‘perpetrator’’) causes a change in the metabolic clearance
of the drug being affected by the interaction (the ‘‘victim’’), in turn either
decreasing or increasing concentrations of the victim drug in plasma and
presumably also at the site of action.
A pharmacodynamic interaction involves either inhibition or enhancement
of the clinical effects of the victim drug as a result of similar or identical
end-organ actions.
31. Pharmacodynamics
Pharmacodynamics refers to the relationship between drug
concentration at the site of action and the resulting effect, including
the time course and intensity of therapeutic and adverse effects.
The effect of a drug present at the site of action is determined by that
drug’s binding with a receptor.
The concentration at the site of the receptor determines the intensity of
a drug’s effect
32. Drug Action
Four major types of bio-
macromolecular targets of drug action
is there,
(A) Enzyme
(B) Transmembrane ion channel
(C) Membrane bound transporter
(D) Receptor
33. Factors Affect Drug Response
Density of receptors on the cell surface
the mechanism by which a signal is
transmitted into the cell by second
messengers.
Regulatory factors that control gene
translation and protein production may
influence drug effect
34. Dose-response Curves
Individual responses to varying doses
Threshold: Dose that produces a
just-noticeable effect.
ED50: Dose that produces a 50% of
maximum response.
Ceiling: Lowest dose that produces
a maximal effect.
0
20
40
60
80
100
0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000
Ceiling
ED50
Threshold
ED50
Response
Dose
36. Dose-Response Functions
Efficacy ED50 = median effective dose
Lethality LD50 = median lethal dose
Therapeutic Index = LD 50 /ED 50
= toxic dose/effective dose
This is a measure of a drug’s safety
# A large number = a wide margin of safety
# A small number = a small margin of safety
37. Maximum Effect(Emax) & EC50
When the logarithm of concentration is plotted
versus effect, one can see that there is a
concentration below which no effect is observed
and a concentration above which no greater effect
is achieved.
50% effective concentration Or EC50 the
concentration at which 50% of the maximum
effect is achieved.
The EC50 does not, however, indicate other
important determinants of drug response, such as
the duration of effect.
38. Duration of effect
Duration of effect is determined by a complex set of factors, including
# The time that a drug is engaged on the receptor
# Intracellular signaling
# Gene regulation.
Time Course Studies important for
# Predicting dosages/dosing intervals
# Maintaining therapeutic levels
# Determining time to elimination
39. Tolerance
The effectiveness can decrease with continued use is referred to as
tolerance.
Tolerance may be caused by
# The pharmacokinetic factors, such as increased drug metabolism,
that decrease the concentrations achieved with a given dose.
# The pharmacodynamic factors like when the same concentration
at the receptor site results in a reduced effect with repeated exposure.