.Enzymes are proteins that catalyze or speed up chemical reactions. They also help digest the foods we eat food and heal our wounds. They play major roles in respiration, making proteins, and DNA replication..
characteristic features of an enzymes and their classification categories and also including the mechanisms.then, physical and chemical properties & applications of enzymes.
characteristic features of an enzymes and their classification categories and also including the mechanisms.then, physical and chemical properties & applications of enzymes.
Inhibitors are chemicals that reduce the rate of the enzymatic reactions,
They are usually specific and work at low concentrations,
They block the enzyme, but they do not usually destroy it,
Many drugs and poisons are inhibitors of enzymes in the nervous system,
Inhibitors of the catalytic activities of enzymes provide both pharmacologic agents and research tools for the study of the mechanism of enzyme action.
Inhibitors are chemicals that reduce the rate of the enzymatic reactions,
They are usually specific and work at low concentrations,
They block the enzyme, but they do not usually destroy it,
Many drugs and poisons are inhibitors of enzymes in the nervous system,
Inhibitors of the catalytic activities of enzymes provide both pharmacologic agents and research tools for the study of the mechanism of enzyme action.
This power-point presentation will give a complete overview about enzymes, nomenclature of enzymes. Enzymes inhibition is also covered in this ppt. Along with some basin introduction to G- protein coupled receptors is also provided.
unit-4 enzymes by poonam9 Pgdiploma.pptxpoonam869505
enzymes-
-definition,types and classification of enzymes.
-coenzymes,specificity of enzymes ,isoenzymes,enzyme kinetics including factors affecting velocity of enzymes catalysed reaction.enzyme inhibition
"Bacterial metabolism: Fueling life's processes in tiny powerhouses."
Use of bacterial metabolism in biotechnology, biofuels, and other industries
Examples of how bacterial metabolism is harnessed for beneficial purposes
"Metabolism: the sum of chemical reactions in an organism, supporting growth, energy production, and vital functions."
"Bacterial Metabolism and Life: Pervading every aspect of life, shaping ecosystems, and influencing our world."
Bacterial metabolism refers to the collective chemical reactions and processes that occur within bacterial cells, enabling them to maintain life, grow, and reproduce. These metabolic activities involve a complex network of biochemical pathways that facilitate the conversion of nutrients into energy, biomolecules, and essential compounds necessary for bacterial survival.
Metabolic processes in bacteria include catabolic pathways that break down complex molecules (such as sugars) to release energy and anabolic pathways that build complex molecules (such as proteins, nucleic acids) using energy. Bacteria utilize various metabolic strategies based on their energy and carbon sources, including aerobic and anaerobic respiration, fermentation, and photosynthesis in photosynthetic bacteria.
The primary goals of bacterial metabolism are to obtain energy, synthesize necessary cellular components, regulate chemical processes, and adapt to changing environmental conditions. The understanding of bacterial metabolism is crucial for various fields, including medicine, agriculture, biotechnology, and environmental science, as it allows us to develop strategies to combat harmful bacteria, harness their metabolic capabilities for beneficial applications, and study their role in ecological systems.
Second-level Digital Divide and experiences of Schools and TeachersLiwayway Memije-Cruz
The second-level digital divide, is referred to as the production gap, and it describes the gap that separates the consumers of content on the Internet from the producers of content.
Science and technology studies, or science, technology and society studies (STS) is the study of how society, politics, and culture affect scientific research and technological innovation, and how these, in turn, affect society, politics and culture.
A hydrocarbon is a molecule whose structure includes only hydrogen and carbon atoms. Hydrocarbons form bonds with other atoms in order to create organic compounds.
Hydrocarbon derivatives are based on simple hydrocarbon compounds that contain only hydrogens and carbons. Hydrocarbon derivatives contain at least one element other than hydrogen or carbon, such as oxygen, nitrogen or one of the halogen atoms (elements in column 7A of the Periodic Table.
Organic reactions are chemical reactions involving organic compounds. Organic reactions are used in the construction of new organic molecules. The production of many man-made chemicals such as drugs, plastics, food additives, fabrics depend on organic reactions.
Organic chemistry involves the study of the structure, properties, composition, reactions, and preparation of carbon-containing compounds, which include not only hydrocarbons but also compounds with any number of other elements, including hydrogen (most compounds contain at least one carbon–hydrogen bond), nitrogen, oxygen, halogens, phosphorus, silicon, and sulfur.
This branch of chemistry was originally limited to compounds produced by living organisms but has been broadened to include human-made substances such as plastics. The range of application of organic compounds is enormous and also includes, but is not limited to, pharmaceuticals, petrochemicals, food, explosives, paints, and cosmetics.
Organic chemistry is the study of the structure, properties, composition, reactions, and preparation of carbon-containing compounds, which include not only hydrocarbons but also compounds with any number of other elements, including hydrogen (most compounds contain at least one carbon–hydrogen bond), nitrogen, oxygen,
Science and technology studies, or science, technology and society studies (STS) is the study of how society, politics, and culture affect scientific research and technological innovation, and how these, in turn, affect society, politics and culture.
Isomers are molecules with the same molecular formula, but different structural or spatial arrangements of the atoms within the molecule. The reason there are such a colossal number of organic compounds which is more than 10 million is partly due to isomerism.
Apportionment is Apportionment involves dividing something up, just like fair division.
Voting is a method for a group, such as, a meeting or an electorate to make a collective decision or express an opinion, usually following discussions, debates or election campaigns.
Lipid metabolism entails the oxidation of fatty acids to either generate energy or synthesize new lipids from smaller constituent molecules. Lipid metabolism is associated with carbohydrate metabolism, as products of glucose (such as acetyl CoA) can be converted into lipids.
A Hamiltonian path is a path that visits each vertex of the graph exactly once.
A Hamiltonian circuit is a path that uses each vertex of a graph exactly once and returns to the starting vertex.
Carbohydrate metabolism involves the different biochemical processes responsible for the formation, breakdown, and interconversion of carbohydrates in living organisms.
A graph is a diagram displaying data which show the relationship between two or more quantities, measurements or indicative numbers that may or may not have a specific mathematical formula relating them to each other.
Every organism is composed of several different types of human body tissue. The human body tissue is another way of describing how our cells are grouped together in a highly organized manner according to specific structure and function. These groupings of cells form tissues, which then make up organs and various parts of the body.
Reproduction means producing offspring that may or may not be exact copies of their parents. It is a part of a life cycle, which is a series of events wherein individuals grow, develop, and reproduce according to a program of instructions encoded in DNA, which they inherit from their parents. When cells divide, each daughter cell receives a complete copy of DNA and enough cytoplasmic machinery to start up its own operation. DNA contains the blueprints for making different proteins.
Reproduction means producing offspring that may or may not be exact copies of their parents. It is a part of a life cycle, which is a series of events wherein individuals grow, develop, and reproduce according to a program of instructions encoded in DNA, which they inherit from their parents. When cells divide, each daughter cell receives a complete copy of DNA and enough cytoplasmic machinery to start up its own operation. DNA contains the blueprints for making different proteins.
This pdf is about the Schizophrenia.
For more details visit on YouTube; @SELF-EXPLANATORY;
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCAiarMZDNhe1A3Rnpr_WkzA/videos
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Cancer cell metabolism: special Reference to Lactate PathwayAADYARAJPANDEY1
Normal Cell Metabolism:
Cellular respiration describes the series of steps that cells use to break down sugar and other chemicals to get the energy we need to function.
Energy is stored in the bonds of glucose and when glucose is broken down, much of that energy is released.
Cell utilize energy in the form of ATP.
The first step of respiration is called glycolysis. In a series of steps, glycolysis breaks glucose into two smaller molecules - a chemical called pyruvate. A small amount of ATP is formed during this process.
Most healthy cells continue the breakdown in a second process, called the Kreb's cycle. The Kreb's cycle allows cells to “burn” the pyruvates made in glycolysis to get more ATP.
The last step in the breakdown of glucose is called oxidative phosphorylation (Ox-Phos).
It takes place in specialized cell structures called mitochondria. This process produces a large amount of ATP. Importantly, cells need oxygen to complete oxidative phosphorylation.
If a cell completes only glycolysis, only 2 molecules of ATP are made per glucose. However, if the cell completes the entire respiration process (glycolysis - Kreb's - oxidative phosphorylation), about 36 molecules of ATP are created, giving it much more energy to use.
IN CANCER CELL:
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
introduction to WARBERG PHENOMENA:
WARBURG EFFECT Usually, cancer cells are highly glycolytic (glucose addiction) and take up more glucose than do normal cells from outside.
Otto Heinrich Warburg (; 8 October 1883 – 1 August 1970) In 1931 was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology for his "discovery of the nature and mode of action of the respiratory enzyme.
WARNBURG EFFECT : cancer cells under aerobic (well-oxygenated) conditions to metabolize glucose to lactate (aerobic glycolysis) is known as the Warburg effect. Warburg made the observation that tumor slices consume glucose and secrete lactate at a higher rate than normal tissues.
Nutraceutical market, scope and growth: Herbal drug technologyLokesh Patil
As consumer awareness of health and wellness rises, the nutraceutical market—which includes goods like functional meals, drinks, and dietary supplements that provide health advantages beyond basic nutrition—is growing significantly. As healthcare expenses rise, the population ages, and people want natural and preventative health solutions more and more, this industry is increasing quickly. Further driving market expansion are product formulation innovations and the use of cutting-edge technology for customized nutrition. With its worldwide reach, the nutraceutical industry is expected to keep growing and provide significant chances for research and investment in a number of categories, including vitamins, minerals, probiotics, and herbal supplements.
Richard's aventures in two entangled wonderlandsRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
Professional air quality monitoring systems provide immediate, on-site data for analysis, compliance, and decision-making.
Monitor common gases, weather parameters, particulates.
Introduction:
RNA interference (RNAi) or Post-Transcriptional Gene Silencing (PTGS) is an important biological process for modulating eukaryotic gene expression.
It is highly conserved process of posttranscriptional gene silencing by which double stranded RNA (dsRNA) causes sequence-specific degradation of mRNA sequences.
dsRNA-induced gene silencing (RNAi) is reported in a wide range of eukaryotes ranging from worms, insects, mammals and plants.
This process mediates resistance to both endogenous parasitic and exogenous pathogenic nucleic acids, and regulates the expression of protein-coding genes.
What are small ncRNAs?
micro RNA (miRNA)
short interfering RNA (siRNA)
Properties of small non-coding RNA:
Involved in silencing mRNA transcripts.
Called “small” because they are usually only about 21-24 nucleotides long.
Synthesized by first cutting up longer precursor sequences (like the 61nt one that Lee discovered).
Silence an mRNA by base pairing with some sequence on the mRNA.
Discovery of siRNA?
The first small RNA:
In 1993 Rosalind Lee (Victor Ambros lab) was studying a non- coding gene in C. elegans, lin-4, that was involved in silencing of another gene, lin-14, at the appropriate time in the
development of the worm C. elegans.
Two small transcripts of lin-4 (22nt and 61nt) were found to be complementary to a sequence in the 3' UTR of lin-14.
Because lin-4 encoded no protein, she deduced that it must be these transcripts that are causing the silencing by RNA-RNA interactions.
Types of RNAi ( non coding RNA)
MiRNA
Length (23-25 nt)
Trans acting
Binds with target MRNA in mismatch
Translation inhibition
Si RNA
Length 21 nt.
Cis acting
Bind with target Mrna in perfect complementary sequence
Piwi-RNA
Length ; 25 to 36 nt.
Expressed in Germ Cells
Regulates trnasposomes activity
MECHANISM OF RNAI:
First the double-stranded RNA teams up with a protein complex named Dicer, which cuts the long RNA into short pieces.
Then another protein complex called RISC (RNA-induced silencing complex) discards one of the two RNA strands.
The RISC-docked, single-stranded RNA then pairs with the homologous mRNA and destroys it.
THE RISC COMPLEX:
RISC is large(>500kD) RNA multi- protein Binding complex which triggers MRNA degradation in response to MRNA
Unwinding of double stranded Si RNA by ATP independent Helicase
Active component of RISC is Ago proteins( ENDONUCLEASE) which cleave target MRNA.
DICER: endonuclease (RNase Family III)
Argonaute: Central Component of the RNA-Induced Silencing Complex (RISC)
One strand of the dsRNA produced by Dicer is retained in the RISC complex in association with Argonaute
ARGONAUTE PROTEIN :
1.PAZ(PIWI/Argonaute/ Zwille)- Recognition of target MRNA
2.PIWI (p-element induced wimpy Testis)- breaks Phosphodiester bond of mRNA.)RNAse H activity.
MiRNA:
The Double-stranded RNAs are naturally produced in eukaryotic cells during development, and they have a key role in regulating gene expression .
A brief information about the SCOP protein database used in bioinformatics.
The Structural Classification of Proteins (SCOP) database is a comprehensive and authoritative resource for the structural and evolutionary relationships of proteins. It provides a detailed and curated classification of protein structures, grouping them into families, superfamilies, and folds based on their structural and sequence similarities.
2. What are enzymes?
• Enzymes are
biological molecules
(typically proteins)
that significantly
speed up the rate of
virtually all of the
chemical reactions
that take place
within cells.
A 3D model of pepsin, an enzyme
that digests food proteins into
peptides.
3. Functions:
The biological processes that occur within all living
organisms are chemical reactions, and most are regulated
by enzymes. Without enzymes, many of these reactions
would not take place at a perceptible rate.
Enzymes catalyze all aspects of cell metabolism. This
includes the digestion of food, in which large nutrient
molecules (such as proteins, carbohydrates, and fats) are
broken down into smaller molecules; the conservation and
transformation of chemical energy; and the construction of
cellular macromolecules from smaller precursors. Many
inherited human diseases, such as albinism and
phenylketonuria, result from a deficiency of a particular
enzyme.
4. Enzymes play an increasingly important
role in medicine
• The enzyme thrombin is used to promote the
healing of wounds.
• Other enzymes are used to diagnose certain kinds
of disease, to cause the remission of some forms of
leukemia—a disease of the blood-forming organs—
and to counteract unfavourable reactions in people
who are allergic to penicillin.
• The enzyme lysozyme, which destroys cell walls, is
used to kill bacteria.
5. Enzymes and Medicine
• Enzymes have also been investigated
for their potential to prevent tooth
decay and to serve as anticoagulants
in the treatment of thrombosis, a
disease characterized by the formation
of a clot, or plug, in a blood vessel.
• Enzymes may eventually be used to
control enzyme deficiencies and
abnormalities resulting from diseases.
6. Enzymes are used in industrial
processes:
• preparation of certain chemical compounds and
the tanning of leather.
• analytical procedures involving the detection of
very small quantities of specific substances.
• necessary in various food-related industries,
including cheese making, the brewing of beer,
the aging of wine, and the baking of bread.
• used to clean clothes.
7. Classification and nomenclature
• The first enzyme name, proposed in 1833,
was diastase.
• Sixty-five years later, French microbiologist
and chemist Émile Duclaux suggested that all
enzymes be named by adding -ase to a root
indicative of the nature of the substrate of the
enzyme.
• Although enzymes are no longer named in
such a simple manner, with the exception of a
few—e.g., pepsin, trypsin, chymotrypsin,
papain—most enzyme names do end in -ase.
12. Lyases
• enzyme that catalyzes
the breaking (an
"elimination" reaction)
of various chemical
bonds by means other
than hydrolysis (a
"substitution" reaction)
and oxidation, often
forming a new double
bond or a new ring
structure.
13. Isomerases
• any one of a
class of enzymes
that catalyze
reactions
involving a
structural
rearrangement of
a molecule.
14. Ligases
• Ligase, also called
Synthetase, any one of
a class of about 50
enzymes that catalyze
reactions involving the
conservation of
chemical energy and
provide a couple
between energy-
demanding synthetic
processes and energy-
yielding breakdown
reactions.
15. Catalyst
• a substance that accelerates a chemical
reaction but is not consumed in the process.
• The amount of catalyst has no relationship to
the quantity of substance altered; very small
amounts of enzymes are very efficient
catalysts.
• Because the presence of an enzyme
accelerates the rate of conversion of a
compound to a product, it accelerates the
approach to equilibrium; it does not, however,
influence the equilibrium point attained.
16. What is enzyme regulation?
• process by which cells can turn off, turn on or
modulate the various activities of metabolic
pathways by regulating the activity of
enzymes.
• regulation of enzyme activity is important
to coordinate the different metabolic
processes.
• It is also important for homeostasis i.e. to
maintain the internal environment of the
• organism constant.
17. Regulation of enzyme activity can be
achieved by two general mechanisms:
1. Control of enzyme quantity
Enzyme quantity is affected by:
A. Altering the rate of enzyme synthesis and degradation,
B. Induction
C. Repression
2. Altering the catalytic efficiency of the enzyme by
Catalytic efficiency of enzymes is affected by:
A. Allosteric regulation
B. Feedback inhibition
C. Proenzyme (zymogen)
D. Covalent modification
E. Protein – Protein interaction
19. Control of the rates of enzyme
synthesis and degradation.
• As enzymes are protein in nature, they
are synthesized from amino acids under
gene control and degraded again to
amino acids after doing its work.
• Enzyme quantity depends on the rate
of enzyme synthesis and the rate of its
• degradation.
20. 1. Increased enzyme quantity may be due to
an increase in the rate of synthesis, a
decrease in the rate of degradation or
both.
2. Decreased enzyme quantity may be due to
a decrease in the rate of synthesis, an
increase in the rate of degradation or both.
For example, the quantity of liver arginase
enzyme increases after protein rich meal due
to an increase in the rateof its synthesis; also
it increases in starved animals due to a
decrease in the rate of its degradation.
21. Induction
an increase in the rate of enzyme synthesis by
substances called inducers
According to the response to inducers, enzymes are
classified into:
i. Constitutive enzymes, the concentration
of these enzymes does not depend on inducers.
ii. Inducible enzymes, the concentration of
these enzymes depends on the presence of inducers
For example, induction of lactase enzyme in
bacteria grown on glucose media.
22. Repression
• a decrease in the rate of enzyme synthesis by
substances called repressors.
• Repressors are low molecular weight substances that
decrease the rate of enzyme synthesis at the level of
gene expression.
• Repressors are usually end products of biosynthetic
reaction, so repression is sometimes called feedback
regulation.
For example, dietary cholesterol decreases the rate of
synthesis of HMG CoA reductase (β-hydroxy β -methyl
glutaryl CoA reductase), which is a key enzyme in
cholesterol biosynthesis.
24. Allosteric Regulation
• Allosteric enzyme is formed of more than one
protein subunit. It has two sites; a catalytic
site for substrate binding and another site
(allosteric site), that is the regulatory site, to
which an effector binds.
• Allosteric means another site.
• If binding of the effector to the enzyme
increases it activity, it is called positive
effector or allosteric activator e.g. ADP is
allosteric activator for phosphofructokinase
enzyme.
26. Mechanism of allosteric regulation
Binding of the allosteric
effector to the regulatory
site causes conformational
changes in the catalytic
site, which becomes more
fit for substrate binding in
positive effector (allosteric
activator), and becomes
unfit for substrate binding in
negative effector (allosteric
inhibitor)
27. Feedback Inhibition
In biosynthetic pathways, an end
product may directly inhibit an enzyme
early in the pathway. Such enzyme
catalyzes the early functionally
irreversible step specific to a particular
biosynthetic pathway.
29. Proenzymes (Zymogens)
Some enzymes are secreted in inactive
forms called proenzymes or zymogens.
Examples for zymogens include peps
inogen, trypsinogen, chymotrypsinogen,
prothrombin and clotting factors.
Zymogen is inactive because it contains
an additional polypeptide chain that
masks (blocks) the active site of the enzyme.
31. Biological importance of zymogens
1.Some enzymes are secreted in
zymogen form to protect the tissues of
origin from auto digestion.
2. Another biological importance of
zymogens is to insure rapid mobilization
of enzyme activity at the
time of needs in response to
physiological demands.
32. Covalent modification
It means modification of enzyme activity of
many enzymes through formation of covalent
bonds e.g.
1. Methylation (addition of methyl
group).
2. Hydroxylation (addition of hydroxyl
group).
3. Adenylation (addition of adenylic
acid).
4. Phosphorylation (addition of
phosphate group)
34. Protein-protein interaction
In enzymes that are formed from of many
protein subunits, the enzyme may be present
in an inactive form through interaction
between its protein subunits.
• The whole enzyme, formed of regulatory and
catalytic subunits, is inactive.
• Activation of the enzyme occurs by sepa
ration of the catalytic subunits from the
regulatory subunits