Drug metabolism involves the biochemical modification of pharmaceutical substances by living organisms through specialized enzyme activity. There are four main stages: absorption, distribution, metabolism, and elimination. Drugs are metabolized to make them more hydrophilic so they can be excreted from the body. The two main phases of drug metabolism are phase I, which introduces functional groups to drugs through reactions like oxidation, and phase II, which involves conjugating drugs to make them more polar and excretable through conjugation reactions. Cytochrome P450 enzymes are largely responsible for phase I reactions. Factors like genetics, age, sex, disease states, and environmental exposures can impact an individual's drug metabolism capacity and response.
Metabolic Changes of Drugs and Related Organic Compounds describes the human metabolic processes of various functional groups found in therapeutic agents.
The importance of a chapter on metabolism lies in the fact that drug interactions are based on these processes.
For pharmacists, it is necessary for them to understand why certain drugs are contraindicated with other drugs.
This chapter attempts to describe the various phases of drug metabolism, the sites where these biotransformation will occur, the role of specific enzymes, metabolism of specific functional groups, and several examples of the metabolism of currently used therapeutic agents.
A power point presentation on Pharmacodynamics (what drug does to the body) suitable for undergraduate medical students beginning to study Pharmacology
Metabolic Changes of Drugs and Related Organic Compounds describes the human metabolic processes of various functional groups found in therapeutic agents.
The importance of a chapter on metabolism lies in the fact that drug interactions are based on these processes.
For pharmacists, it is necessary for them to understand why certain drugs are contraindicated with other drugs.
This chapter attempts to describe the various phases of drug metabolism, the sites where these biotransformation will occur, the role of specific enzymes, metabolism of specific functional groups, and several examples of the metabolism of currently used therapeutic agents.
A power point presentation on Pharmacodynamics (what drug does to the body) suitable for undergraduate medical students beginning to study Pharmacology
GPCRs are the most dynamic and most abundant all the receptors. The G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) superfamily comprises the largest and most diverse group of proteins in mammals. GPCRs are responsible for every aspect of human biology from vision, taste, sense of smell, sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous functions, metabolism, and immune regulation to reproduction. GPCRs interact with a number of ligands ranging from photons, ions, amino acids, odorants, pheromones, eicosanoids, neurotransmitters, peptides, proteins, and hormones.
Nevertheless, for the majority of GPCRs, the identity of their natural ligands is still unknown, hence remain orphan receptors.
The simple dogma that underpins much of our current understanding of GPCRs, namely,
one GPCR gene− one GPCR protein− one functional GPCR− one G protein −one response
is showing distinct signs of wear.
biotransformation of drug
Biotransformation/Xenobiotic metabolism/ drug metabolism/detoxification.
-Xenobiotics: a wide variety of foreign compounds to which humans get exposed in day to day life.
-It includes unknown compounds, drugs, environmental pollutants, toxins.
-Many xenobiotics can evoke biological responses.
DEFINITION
The biochemical alteration of drug or xenobiotic in the presence of various enzymes that acts as a catalyst which themselves not consumed in the reaction and there by may activate or deactivate the drug is called biotransformation.
Why Biotransformation is necessary?:
To easily eliminate the drug
To terminate drug action by inactivating it
Consequences of Biotransformation
Active to Inactive:
Phenobarbitone---- Hydroxyphenobarbitone
Inactive (prodrug) to Active :
L-Dopa ---- Dopamine
Parathion -- Paraoxon
Talampicillin -- Ampicillin
Active to equally active:
Diazepam -- Oxazepam
Amitriptyline -- Nortriptyline
Imipramine -- Des-imipramine
Codeine -- Morphine
Sites of biotransformation
In the body: Liver, small and large intestines, lungs, skin, kidney, nasal mucosa & brain.
Liver is considered “metabolite clearing house” for both endogenous substances and xenobiotics.
Intestines are considered “initial site of drug metabolism”.
FIRST PASS METABOLISM:
First pass metabolism or presystemic
metabolism or ‘first pass effect’
After oral administeration many drugs are absorbed from the small intestine - transported first via portal system to the liver, where they undergo extensive metabolism before reaching systemic circulation.
fundamental concepts in drug biotransformation
Lipid soluble drugs are poorly excreted in the urine. They tend to store in fat and/or circulate until they are converted (phase I biotransformation) to more water soluble metabolites or metabolites that conjugate (phase II biotransformation) with water soluble substances.
Water soluble drugs are more readily excreted in the urine. They may be metabolized, but generally not by the CYP enzyme systems.
Enzymes catalyzing phase I biotransformation reactions
Enzymes catalyzing phase I biotransformation reactions include:
cytochrome P-450
aldehyde and alcohol dehydrogenase
deaminases
esterases
amidases
epoxide hydratases
Addition of water
Cleavage of R-O or R-N bond accompanied by addition of H2O
CYTOCHROME P450
The cytochrome P-450 families are referred to using an arabic numeral, e.g., CYP1, CYP2, etc.
Each family has a number of subfamilies denoted by an upper case letter, e.g., CYP2A, CYP2B, etc.
The individual enzymes within each subfamily are denoted by another arabic numeral, e.g., CYP3A1, CYP3A2, etc.
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2. Page 2
Definition
• Drug metabolism is a biochemical
modification of pharmaceutical substances
by living organisms usually through
specialized enzymatic activity.
3. Page 3
Stages of drug metabolism
• Absorption- drug gets into bloodstream
• Distribution - gets to site of action
• Metabolism - is “changed” so that it can be
excreted
• Elimination - leaves the body
5. Page 5
Lipophilic Nature
allows
• Passage through biochemical membranes
• Access to the site of production
• BUT it hinders excretion.
• Lipophilic nature must be converted to
hydropilic nature so it can be easily
excreted
6. Page 6
Metabolism
• The metabolism of drugs and other
xenobiotics into more hydrophilic
metabolites is essential for the
elimination of these compounds from
the body and termination of their
biological activity.
• Chemical reactions include oxidation,
reduction, hydrolysis, hydration,
conjugation, condensation and
isomeriztion.
7. Page 7
Biotransformation
• Generates more polar (water soluble),
inactive metabolites
• Readily excreted from body
• Metabolites may still have potent
biological activity (or may have toxic
properties)
• Generally applicable to metabolism of
all xenobiotics as well as endogenous
compounds such as steroids, vitamins
and fatty acids
8. Page 8
Site of Biotransformation
• Enzymatic in nature.
• Enzyme systems involved are localized in
liver.
• Every tissue has some metabolic activity
• Other organs with significant metabolic
capacity are GI tract, kidneys and lungs.
9. Page 9
Endoplasmic Reticulum
(microsomal) and Cytosol
• With respect to drug metabolizing reactions,
two sub cellular organelles are quantitatively
the most important: the endoplasmic
reticulum and the cytosol.
• The phase I oxidative enzymes are almost
exclusively localized in the endoplasmic
reticulum.
• Phase II enzymes are located predominantly
in the cytosol.
10. Page 10
Phase I and Phase II
Metabolism
• Phase I
– functionalization reactions (nonsynthetic)
• Phase II
– conjugation reactions (synthetic)
• Phase III
– elimination reactions (excretion in bile)
11. Page 11
Phase I Metabolism
(Includes oxidation, reduction, hydrolysis, and
hydration and isomerization (plus rarer misc.)isomerization)
• Many drugs undergo a number of these
reactions
• Main function of Phase I metabolism is to
prepare the compound for phase II
metabolism
• Mixed function enzyme system found in
microsomes of many cells (esp. liver, kidney,
lungs, intestine) performs many different
functionalization reactions
12. Page 12
Phase I
• Converts the parent drug to a more
polar metabolites by introducing or
unmasking a functional group (-OH,-
NH2 ,-SH).
• Usually results in loss of
pharmacological activity
• Sometimes may be equally or more
active than parent
13. Page 13
Cytochrome P450
Monooxygenase System
• Superfamily of heme containing proteins
• Involved in metabolism of diverse
endogenous and exogenous compounds
– Drugs
– Environmental chemicals
– Other xenobiotics
14. Page 14
Prodrug
• Pharmacologically inactive
• Converted rapidly to active metabolites
(usually hydrolysis of ester or amide
bond)
• Maximizes the amount of active
metabolites that reaches site of action
15. Page 15
Cytochrome P450
Nomenclature and Multiple
Forms
• ~1000 currently known cytochrome P450s,
about 50 active in humans
• Basis of nomenclature system is divergent
evolution – sequence similarity between
the cytochrome P450s
17. Page 17
• categorized into 17 families (CYPs)
– sequences > 40% identical
– identified by Arabic number, CYP1, CYP2
• further into subfamilies
– sequences >55% identical
– identified by a letter, CYP1A, CYP2D
• may have different, individual isoforms
– identified by another Arabic number, CYP2D6,
CYP3A4
18. Page 18
Phase I Metabolism Summary
Virtually every possible chemical reaction that a
compound can undergo can be catalyzed by the
drug metabolizing enzyme systems
• The final product usually contains a chemical
reactive functional group OH, NH2, SH, COOH.
• This functional group can be acted upon by the
phase II or conjugative enzymes.
• Main function of Phase I metabolism is to
prepare the compound for phase II metabolism,
not excretion.
19. Page 19
Phase II (conjugation reactions)
• Subsequent reaction in which a covalent
linkage is formed between a functional
group on the parent compound or Phase I
metabolite and an endogenous substrate
such as glucuronic acid, sulfate, acetate,
or an amino acid
• Highly polar – rapidly excreted in urine
and feces
• Usually inactive - notable exception is
morphine 6-glucuronide
20. Page 20
Phase II Metabolism
• Phase II is usually the true detoxification
of drugs
• Occurs mostly in cytosol
• Gives products that are generally water
soluble and easily excreted
• Includes sugar conjugation, sulfation,
methylation, acetylation, amino acid
conjugation, glutathione conjugation
21. Page 21
Factors affecting Drug
Metabolism
• Environmental Determinants
Induction
Inhibition
• Disease Factors
• Age and Sex
• Genetic Variation
22. Page 22
Environmental Determinants
• Activity of most drug metabolizing enzymes
can be modulated by exposure to certain
exogenous compounds
– Drugs
– Dietary micronutrient (food additives,
nutritional or preservative)
– Environmental factors (pesticides,
industrial chemicals)
• Can be in the form of induction or inhibition
• Contributes to interindividual variability in the
metabolism of many drugs
23. Page 23
Induction of Drug Metabolism
• Enzyme induction is the process by which
exposure to certain substrates (e.g., drugs,
environmental pollutants) results in
accelerated biotransformation with a
corresponding reduction in unmetabolized
drug.
(some substance stimulates the synthesis
of the enzyme and the metabolic
capacity is increased -drug gets
metabolized faster)
24. Page 24
Induction of Drug Metabolism
• Many currently used drugs are well known to
induce their own metabolism or the
metabolism of other drugs. Some examples
are the anticonvulsant medications
phenobarbital and carbamazepine, and even
St. John’s Wort.
• Cigarette smoking can cause increased
elimination of theophylline and other
compounds.
25. Page 25
Consequences of Induction
• Increased rate of metabolism
• Decrease in drug plasma
concentration
• Reduced bioavailability
• If metabolite is active or reactive,
increased drug effects or toxicity
26. Page 26
Inhibition of Drug Metabolism
• Drug metabolism is an enzymatic
process can be subjected to inhibition.
• Drugs and other substances can inhibit the
metabolism of other drugs.
27. Page 27
Some types of inhibition
• Competition between substrates for enzyme active
site
– Competitive inhibition
– Destruction of preexisting enzymes
– Interference with enzyme synthesis
– Affinity for binding site (drug with high affinity for an
enzyme will slow the metabolism of any low affinity
drug)
• Irreversible inactivation of enzyme –
– Complex with heme iron of CYP450 (cimetidine,
ketoconazole)
– Destruction of heme group (secobarbital)
• Depletion of cofactors such as NADP for phase II
enzymes
28. Page 28
Consequences of Inhibition
• Increase in the plasma
concentration of parent drug
• Reduction in metabolite
concentration
• Exaggerated and prolonged
pharmacological effects
• Increased likelihood of drug-
induced toxicity
29. Page 29
Disease Factors
• Liver Disease – Cirrhosis, Alcoholic liver
disease, jaundice, carcinoma
– Major location of drug metabolizing enzymes
– Disfunction can lead to impaired drug metabolism-
decreased enzyme activity
– Results in exaggerated pharmacological
responses and adverse effects
• Cardiac failure causes decreased blood flow
to the liver
• Hormonal diseases, infections and
inflammation can change drug metabolizing
capacity
30. Page 30
Age
• Newborns and infants – metabolize drugs
relatively efficiently but at a rate generally
slower than adults
• Full maturity appears in second decade of
life
• Slow decline in function associated with
aging
32. Page 32
Sex
• Responsiveness to certain drugs is
different for men and women
• Pregnancy – induction of certain drug
metabolizing enzymes occurs in second
and third trimester
• Hormonal changes during development
have a profound effect on drug
metabolism
33. Page 33
Genetic Variation
• Wide variability in the response to drugs
between individuals
• Consequences of such variation may be
therapeutic failure or an adverse drug
reaction
• Genetic diversity is the rule rather than
the exception with all proteins, including
drug metabolizing enzymes
34. Page 34
• Inheritance leads to subpopulations
(genetic polymorphisms) with different drug
metabolizing abilities
lack of activity
reduction in catalytic ability
enhanced activity
• Frequency of the polymorphism often
varies according to the ethnic ancestry of
the individual
35. Page 35
• CYP2D6 is extensively studied, the gene for
CYP2D6 is highly polymorphic
• It’s expression leads to 3 phenotypes (phenotype
is the expression of genetic make-up)
Extensive metabolizers (EMs) have functional
enzyme activity
Intermediate metabolizers (IMs) have diminished
enzyme activity
Poor metabolizers (PMs) have little or no activity
• 5-10% of Caucasians and 1-2% of Asians
exhibit the PM phenotype
36. Page 36
• Remarkable interindividual variation in
pharmacological effect of the drug
