DNA replication is the process by which a cell makes an identical copy of its DNA before cell division. It involves unwinding the DNA double helix at an origin of replication and using each strand as a template to synthesize new partner strands. RNA primers are used to initiate DNA synthesis, which occurs semi-conservatively and bidirectionally from the replication fork to produce two identical copies of the original DNA molecule.
RNA- A polymer of ribonucleotides, is a single stranded structure. There are three major types of RNA- m RNA,t RNA and r RNA. Besides that there are small nuclear,micro RNAs, small interfering and heterogeneous RNAs. Each of them has a specific structure and performs a specific function.
RNA- A polymer of ribonucleotides, is a single stranded structure. There are three major types of RNA- m RNA,t RNA and r RNA. Besides that there are small nuclear,micro RNAs, small interfering and heterogeneous RNAs. Each of them has a specific structure and performs a specific function.
The genetic material of a cell or an organism refers to those materials found in the nucleus, mitochondria and cytoplasm, which play a fundamental role in determining the structure and nature of cell substances, and capable of self-propagating and variation.
This presentation deals with the ‘Central Dogma’ which is briefly the process by which the instructions in DNA are converted into a functional product. It was first proposed in 1958 by Francis Crick, discoverer of the structure of DNA.
“This structure has novel features which are of considerable biological interest.”
This may be the science most famous statement, which appeared in April 1953 in the scientific paper where James Watson and Francis Crick presented the structure of the DNA-helix.
“It has not escaped our notice that the specific pairing we have postulated immediately suggests a possible copying mechanism for the genetic material."
The genetic material of a cell or an organism refers to those materials found in the nucleus, mitochondria and cytoplasm, which play a fundamental role in determining the structure and nature of cell substances, and capable of self-propagating and variation.
This presentation deals with the ‘Central Dogma’ which is briefly the process by which the instructions in DNA are converted into a functional product. It was first proposed in 1958 by Francis Crick, discoverer of the structure of DNA.
“This structure has novel features which are of considerable biological interest.”
This may be the science most famous statement, which appeared in April 1953 in the scientific paper where James Watson and Francis Crick presented the structure of the DNA-helix.
“It has not escaped our notice that the specific pairing we have postulated immediately suggests a possible copying mechanism for the genetic material."
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4. Directionality of DNA
Nucleotides in DNA backbone
are bonded together by
phosphodiester linkage
between 3′ & 5′ carbons.
DNA molecule has “direction.“
Complementary strands run in
opposite directions.
5. DNA Replication- Introduction
Basis for inheritance
Fundamental process occurring in all
cells for copying DNA to transfer the
genetic information to daughter cells
Each cell must replicate its DNA before
division.
6. DNA Replication
Semi conservative
Parental strands are not
degraded
Base pairing allows each
strand to serve as a
template for a new strand
New duplex is 1/2 parent
template &
1/2 new DNA
7. Okazaki
DNA Replication
Semi discontinuous
Leading & Lagging strands
Leading strand
continuous synthesis
Lagging strand
Okazaki fragments
joined by ligases
8. DNA Replication
Energy of Replication
The nucleotides arrive as
nucleoside triphosphates
DNA base, sugar with PPP
○ P-P-P = energy for bonding
DNA bases arrive with their own energy source
for bonding
bonded by enzyme: DNA polymerase III
9. DNA Replication
Primer is needed
DNA polymerase can only add nucleotides
to 3′ end of a growing DNA strand
○ need a “starter” nucleotide to make a
bond
strand only grows 5′→3′.
Template is read in the 3′-5′ direction while
polymerization takes place in the 5′→3′
direction
10. Primer
RNA primer
Synthesized by Primase
serves as a starter sequence for DNA
polymerase III
Only one RNA Primer-required for the
leading strand
RNA Primers for the lagging strand depend
on the number of “OKAZAKI
FRAGMENTS”
RNA Primer has a free 3’OH group to
which the first Nucleotide is bound.
11. DNA Replication-Steps
Identification of the origins of replication
Unwinding (denaturation) of dsDNA to provide an
ssDNA template
Formation of the replication fork
Initiation of DNA synthesis and elongation
Primer removal and ligation of the newly
synthesized DNA segments
Reconstitution of chromatin structure
12. Components of Replication
DNA polymerases- Deoxynucleotide
polymerization
Helicase -Processive unwinding of DNA
Topoisomerases Relieve torsional strain that
results from helicase-induced unwinding
RNA primase Initiates synthesis of RNA
primers
Single-strand binding proteins Prevent
premature reannealing of dsDNA
DNA ligase Seals the single strand nick
between the nascent chain and Okazaki
fragments on lagging strand
13. Origin of Replication-
Prokaryotes
At the origin of replication (ori), there is an
association of sequence-specific dsDNA-
binding proteins with a series of direct
repeat DNA sequences.
In E coli, the oriC is bound by the protein
dnaA.
a complex is formed consisting of 150–250
bp of DNA and multimers of the DNA-
binding protein. This leads to the local
denaturation and unwinding of an adjacent
A+T-rich region of DNA.
14. Origin of Replication -Eukaryotes
Functionally similar autonomously replicating
sequences (ARS) or replicators have been identified in
yeast cells.
The ARS contains a somewhat degenerate 11-bp
sequence called the origin replication element (ORE).
The ORE binds a set of proteins, analogous to the dnaA
protein of E coli, which is collectively called the origin
recognition complex (ORC).
The ORE is located adjacent to an approximately 80-bp
A+T-rich sequence that is easy to unwind. This is called
the DNA unwinding element (DUE).
15. Unwinding of DNA
The interaction of proteins with ori
defines the start site of replication and
provides a short region of ssDNA
essential for initiation of synthesis of the
nascent DNA strand.
DNA Helicase allows for processive
unwinding of DNA.
Single-stranded DNA-binding proteins
(SSBs) stabilize this complex.
In cooperation with SSB, this leads to
DNA unwinding and active replication.
17. Formation of the Replication
Fork
The polymerase III holoenzyme binds to
template DNA as part of a multiprotein
complex
DNA polymerases only synthesize DNA in the
5' to 3' direction,
Because the DNA strands are antiparallel , the
polymerase functions asymmetrically.
On the leading (forward) strand, the DNA is
synthesized continuously.
On the lagging (retrograde) strand, the DNA is
synthesized in short (1–5 kb)fragments, the
so-called Okazaki fragments.
19. Formation of Replication
Bubbles
Replication occurs in both directions
along the length of DNA and both
strands are replicated simultaneously.
This replication process generates
"replication bubbles"
21. The DNA Polymerase Complex
A number of different DNA polymerase
molecules engage in DNA replication. These
share three important properties: (1) chain
elongation, (2) Processivity, and (3)
proofreading.
Chain elongation accounts for the rate (in
nucleotides per second) at which
polymerization occurs.
Processivity is an expression of the number of
nucleotides added to the nascent chain before
the polymerase disengages from the template.
The proofreading function identifies copying
errors and corrects them
22. DNA Polymerase Complex
In E coli, polymerase III (pol III)
functions at the replication fork. Of all
polymerases, it catalyzes the highest
rate of chain elongation and is the most
processive.
Polymerase II (pol II) is mostly involved
in proofreading and DNA repair.
Polymerase I (pol I) completes chain
synthesis between Okazaki fragments
on the lagging strand.
24. Eukaryotic DNA polymerases
Eukaryotic cells have counterparts for
each of these enzymes plus some
additional ones. A comparison is shown
in Table-
25. Initiation & Elongation of DNA
Synthesis
Primer-The priming process involves the
nucleophilic attack by the 3'-hydroxyl
group of the RNA primer on the
phosphate of the first entering
deoxynucleoside triphosphate with the
splitting off of pyrophosphate.
Mammalian DNA polymerase Alpha is
mainly responsible for the synthesis of
primer.
26. Initiation & Elongation of DNA
Synthesis
Selection of the proper
deoxyribonucleotide whose terminal 3'-
hydroxyl group is to be attacked is
dependent upon proper base pairing
with the other strand of the DNA
molecule according to the rules
proposed originally by Watson and Crick
27. Initiation & Elongation of DNA
Synthesis
When an adenine deoxyribonucleoside
monophosphoryl moiety is in the template
position, a thymidine triphosphate will enter
and its phosphate will be attacked by the 3'-
hydroxyl group of the deoxyribonucleoside
monophosphoryl most recently added to the
polymer.
By this stepwise process, the template dictates
which deoxyribonucleoside triphosphate is
complementary and by hydrogen bonding
holds it in place while the 3'-hydroxyl group of
the growing strand attacks and incorporates
the new nucleotide into the polymer.
29. DNA Topo isomerases
Relief of super coils is dome by Topo
isomerases
Two types:
Topoisomerases I : acts by making a transient
single cut in the backbone of the DNA, enabling
the strands to swivel around each other to
remove the build-up of twists
Topoisomerase II (DNA Gyrase) acts by
introducing double standed breaks enabling one
double-stranded DNA to pass through another,
thereby removing knots and entanglements that
can form within and between DNA molecules.
32. Primer removal and Nick
sealing
Primers are removed by DNA
polymerase I by replacing
ribonucleotides with deoxy
Ribonucleotides
Nicks are sealed by DNA ligase
Multiple primers on the Lagging strand
while single primer on the leading
strand.
33. Proof reading and Editing
1000 bases/second =
lots of typos!
DNA polymerase I
proofreads & corrects typos
repairs mismatched bases
removes abnormal bases
○ repairs damage
throughout life
reduces error rate from
1 in 10,000 to
1 in 100 million bases
34. Termination of replication
In prokaryotes:
DNA replication terminates when
replication forks reach specific
“termination sites”.
the two replication forks meet each
other on the opposite end of the
parental circular DNA .
35. Termination of replication
This process is completed in about 30
minutes, a replication rate of 3 x 105
bp/min in prokaryotes
The entire mammalian genome
replicates in approximately 9 hours, the
average period required for formation of
a tetraploid genome from a diploid
genome in a replicating cell.
36. Reconstitution of Chromatin
Structure
chromatin structure must be re-formed
after replication. Newly replicated DNA
is rapidly assembled into nucleosomes,
and the preexisting and newly
assembled histone octamers are
randomly distributed to each arm of the
replication fork.
37. DNA Synthesis and the Cell
Cycle
In animal cells, including human
cells, the replication of the DNA
genome occurs only during the
synthetic or S phase.
This is usually temporally separated
from the mitotic phase by non
synthetic periods referred to as gap
1 (G1) and gap 2 (G2), occurring
before and after the S phase,
respectively
The cell prepares for DNA synthesis
in G1 and for mitosis in G2.
38. Telomeres
In eukaryotic replication, following
removal of RNA Primer from the
5’end of lagging strand; a gap is left.
This gap exposes DNA strand to
attack of 5’ exonucleases.
This problem is overcome by
Telomerase.
39. Telomeres
Repeating, non-coding sequences at
the end of chromosomes = protective
cap
limit to ~50 cell divisions
40. Mechanism of action of
Telomerase
The enzyme synthesizes
(TTAGGG)n repeats on to the Telomere
sequences, using an internal RNA template.
41. Mechanism of action of
Telomerase(Contd.)
Telomerase acts like a reverse Transcriptase. It recognizes 3’ end of
telomere, based on the RNA component, a small DNA strand is
synthesized
42. Mechanism of action of
Telomerase(Contd.)
Telomerase
different level of activity in
different cells
High in stem cells &
cancers
Activity lost in old
age
Potential target for
newer anticancer
drugs
43. Inhibitors of DNA replication
Bacterial DNA Gyrase(Type II
Topoisomerase)- Inhibited by
Novobiocin and Nalidixic acid.
Ciprofloxacin interferes with DNA
breakage and rejoining process
Mammalian topoisomerases – inhibited
by Etoposide and Adriamycin, used as
anticancer drugs.
Nucleoside analogues also inhibit
replication and are used as anticancer
drugs.
44. Summary of Replication
Unwinding- forms replication fork
Primase- Synthesizes RNA primer
Continuous synthesis -Leading strand
Discontinuous synthesis – Lagging
strand (Okazaki fragments)
Synthesis 5’-3’ direction
Primers removed, nick sealed
Proof reading by DNA polymerases
Organized in to chromatin structure