Basics of Undergraduate/university fellows
Transcription is more complicated in eukaryotes than in prokaryotes because
eukaryotes possess three different classes of RNA polymerases and because of the
way in which transcripts are processed to their functional forms.
More proteins and transcription factors are involved in eukaryotic transcription.
CBCS 4TH SEM ,
CHARGING, STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF tRNA,
AMINOACYL RNA SYNTHETASE(ASR) PROOFREADING AND EDITING
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YzOVMWYLiCE
One of the first plausible models to account for the preceding observations was
formulated by Robin Holliday.
The key features of the Holliday model are the formation of heteroduplex DNA; the
creation of a cross bridge; its migration along the two heteroduplex strands,
termed branch migration; the occurrence of mismatch repair; and the
subsequent resolution, or splicing, of the intermediate structure to yield different
typesof recombinant molecules.
RNA Polymerase
Introduction
Purification
History
PRODUCTS OF RNAP
Messenger RNA
Non-coding RNA or "RNA genes
Transfer RNA
Ribosomal RNA
Micro RNA
Catalytic RNA (Ribozyme)
prokaryotic and eukaryotic
Transcription by RNA Polymerase
TYPES OF RNA POLYMERASE
Type I
Type II
Type III
Prokaryotic Transcription Unit
EXPRESSION OF A PROKARYOTIC GENE
Prokaryotic Polycistronic Message Codes for Several Different Proteins
Eukaryotic Transcription Unit
ENHANCERS AND SILENCERS
RESULT OF THE TRANSCRIPTION CYCLE
RNAP III TRANSCRIBES HUMAN MICRORNAS
RNAP I–specific subunits promotepolymerase clustering to enhance the rRNA genetranscription cycle
RNAP II–TFIIB STRUCTURE ANDMECHANISM OF TRANSCRIPTION INITIATION
FIVE CHECKPOINTS MAINTAINING THE FIDELITY OFTRANSCRIPTION BY RNAP IN STRUCTURAL ANDENERGETIC DETAILS
Post-transcriptional modification or co-transcriptional modification is a set of biological processes common to most eukaryotic cells by which an RNA primary transcript is chemically altered following transcription from a gene to produce a mature, functional RNA molecule
Basics of Undergraduate/university fellows
Transcription is more complicated in eukaryotes than in prokaryotes because
eukaryotes possess three different classes of RNA polymerases and because of the
way in which transcripts are processed to their functional forms.
More proteins and transcription factors are involved in eukaryotic transcription.
CBCS 4TH SEM ,
CHARGING, STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF tRNA,
AMINOACYL RNA SYNTHETASE(ASR) PROOFREADING AND EDITING
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YzOVMWYLiCE
One of the first plausible models to account for the preceding observations was
formulated by Robin Holliday.
The key features of the Holliday model are the formation of heteroduplex DNA; the
creation of a cross bridge; its migration along the two heteroduplex strands,
termed branch migration; the occurrence of mismatch repair; and the
subsequent resolution, or splicing, of the intermediate structure to yield different
typesof recombinant molecules.
RNA Polymerase
Introduction
Purification
History
PRODUCTS OF RNAP
Messenger RNA
Non-coding RNA or "RNA genes
Transfer RNA
Ribosomal RNA
Micro RNA
Catalytic RNA (Ribozyme)
prokaryotic and eukaryotic
Transcription by RNA Polymerase
TYPES OF RNA POLYMERASE
Type I
Type II
Type III
Prokaryotic Transcription Unit
EXPRESSION OF A PROKARYOTIC GENE
Prokaryotic Polycistronic Message Codes for Several Different Proteins
Eukaryotic Transcription Unit
ENHANCERS AND SILENCERS
RESULT OF THE TRANSCRIPTION CYCLE
RNAP III TRANSCRIBES HUMAN MICRORNAS
RNAP I–specific subunits promotepolymerase clustering to enhance the rRNA genetranscription cycle
RNAP II–TFIIB STRUCTURE ANDMECHANISM OF TRANSCRIPTION INITIATION
FIVE CHECKPOINTS MAINTAINING THE FIDELITY OFTRANSCRIPTION BY RNAP IN STRUCTURAL ANDENERGETIC DETAILS
Post-transcriptional modification or co-transcriptional modification is a set of biological processes common to most eukaryotic cells by which an RNA primary transcript is chemically altered following transcription from a gene to produce a mature, functional RNA molecule
11 how cells read the genome :from DNA to Proteinsaveena solanki
How does the cell convert DNA into working proteins? The process of translation can be seen as the decoding of instructions for making proteins, involving mRNA in transcription as well as tRNA.
Gene regulation, History and Evolution , Traditional Methods:
Northern blot
quantitative reverse transcription PCR (qRTPCR)
serial analysis of gene expression(SAGE) and
DNA microarrays.
DNA Chip
This Powerpoint consists of RNA synthesis (transcription) in prokaryotes and eukaryotes. This also explains about the post-transcriptional modifications in the mRNA. How the post transcriptionla modifications help in the gene expression.
Carotenoids, also called tetraterpenoids, are organic pigments that are produced by plants and algae, as well as several bacteria and fungi. Carotenoids can be produced from fats and other basic organic metabolic building blocks by all these organisms.
A transplastomic plant is a genetically modified plant in which the new genes have not been inserted in the nuclear DNA but in the DNA of the chloroplasts.
Emotional intelligence (EI) or emotional quotient (EQ) is the ability of individuals to recognize their own and other people's emotions, to discriminate between different feelings and label them appropriately, and to use emotional information to guide thinking and behavior.
Glycolysis (from glycose, an older term for glucose + -lysis degradation) is the metabolic pathway that converts glucose C6H12O6, into pyruvate, CH3COCOO− + H+.
Tumor markers (also known as biomarkers) are substances found at higher than normal levels in the blood, urine, or body tissue of some people with cancer. Although cancer cells often produce tumor markers, other healthy cells in the body produce them as well.
Composting is nature's process of recycling decomposed organic materials into a rich soil known as compost. Anything that was once living will decompose
Biodegradation is the chemical dissolution of materials by bacteria or other biological means.
biodegradable simply means to be consumed by microorganisms and return to compounds found in nature
new applications and biotechnological inventions are continuously being developed to help improve our world. Here are few breakthrough biotechnological innovations currently underway.
This presentation explores a brief idea about the structural and functional attributes of nucleotides, the structure and function of genetic materials along with the impact of UV rays and pH upon them.
Cancer cell metabolism: special Reference to Lactate PathwayAADYARAJPANDEY1
Normal Cell Metabolism:
Cellular respiration describes the series of steps that cells use to break down sugar and other chemicals to get the energy we need to function.
Energy is stored in the bonds of glucose and when glucose is broken down, much of that energy is released.
Cell utilize energy in the form of ATP.
The first step of respiration is called glycolysis. In a series of steps, glycolysis breaks glucose into two smaller molecules - a chemical called pyruvate. A small amount of ATP is formed during this process.
Most healthy cells continue the breakdown in a second process, called the Kreb's cycle. The Kreb's cycle allows cells to “burn” the pyruvates made in glycolysis to get more ATP.
The last step in the breakdown of glucose is called oxidative phosphorylation (Ox-Phos).
It takes place in specialized cell structures called mitochondria. This process produces a large amount of ATP. Importantly, cells need oxygen to complete oxidative phosphorylation.
If a cell completes only glycolysis, only 2 molecules of ATP are made per glucose. However, if the cell completes the entire respiration process (glycolysis - Kreb's - oxidative phosphorylation), about 36 molecules of ATP are created, giving it much more energy to use.
IN CANCER CELL:
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
introduction to WARBERG PHENOMENA:
WARBURG EFFECT Usually, cancer cells are highly glycolytic (glucose addiction) and take up more glucose than do normal cells from outside.
Otto Heinrich Warburg (; 8 October 1883 – 1 August 1970) In 1931 was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology for his "discovery of the nature and mode of action of the respiratory enzyme.
WARNBURG EFFECT : cancer cells under aerobic (well-oxygenated) conditions to metabolize glucose to lactate (aerobic glycolysis) is known as the Warburg effect. Warburg made the observation that tumor slices consume glucose and secrete lactate at a higher rate than normal tissues.
Richard's aventures in two entangled wonderlandsRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
This pdf is about the Schizophrenia.
For more details visit on YouTube; @SELF-EXPLANATORY;
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCAiarMZDNhe1A3Rnpr_WkzA/videos
Thanks...!
Nutraceutical market, scope and growth: Herbal drug technologyLokesh Patil
As consumer awareness of health and wellness rises, the nutraceutical market—which includes goods like functional meals, drinks, and dietary supplements that provide health advantages beyond basic nutrition—is growing significantly. As healthcare expenses rise, the population ages, and people want natural and preventative health solutions more and more, this industry is increasing quickly. Further driving market expansion are product formulation innovations and the use of cutting-edge technology for customized nutrition. With its worldwide reach, the nutraceutical industry is expected to keep growing and provide significant chances for research and investment in a number of categories, including vitamins, minerals, probiotics, and herbal supplements.
Professional air quality monitoring systems provide immediate, on-site data for analysis, compliance, and decision-making.
Monitor common gases, weather parameters, particulates.
2. Post transcriptional modification
• Primary transcript made by RNA polymerase normally undergo
further alteration, called post transcriptional processing or
modification.
• Prokaryotes: mRNA transcribed directly from DNA template and used
immediately in protein synthesis
• Eukaryotes: primary transcript (hnRNA) must be processed to
produce the mRNA (active form).
• It occurs in nucleus of cell.
3.
4. Post-transcriptional modifications OF RNA accomplish three things:
1) Modifications help the RNA molecule to be recognized by molecules that
mediate RNA translation into proteins.
2) During post-transcriptional processing, portions of the RNA chain that are
not supposed to be translated into proteins are cut out of the sequence. In
this way, post-transcriptional processing helps increase the efficiency of
protein synthesis by allowing only specific protein- coding RNA to go on to be
translated
3) Without post-transcriptional processing, protein synthesis could be
significantly slowed, since it would take longer for translation machinery to
recognize RNA molecules and significantly more RNA would have to be
unnecessarily translated
5. Terms used in PTM
• 3' Splice site - One of the conserved sequences of an intron. Contains an
adenine next to a guanine base at the 3' end of an intron.
• 5' Capping - One post-transcriptional modification made in the cell nucleus.
The addition of a GTP molecule to the 5' end of a primary RNA transcript
forming a 5'-5' linkage between the two.
• 5' Splice site - One of the conserved sequences of an intron. Contains an
guanine next to a uracil base at the 5' end of an intron.
• Exon - Sequences that are preserved in primary RNA transcript splicing that
will be translated into proteins in the cell cytoplasm.
• Intron - Non-protein coding sequences of a primary RNA transcript that are
removed and degraded during primary RNA transcript splicing.
• Guanyl transferase - The enzyme responsible for catalyzing the reaction that
produces the 5' cap through the addition of a GTP molecule to the 5' end of a
primary RNA transcript.
6. • Poly A tail - One post-transcriptional modification made in the cell nucleus.
A string of up to 500 adenines added to the 3' end of primary RNA
transcripts. Addition catalyzed by the enzyme poly (A) polymerase that
recognizes the sequence AAUAAA.
• RNA splicing - A two-step reaction in which introns are removed from a
primary RNA transcript and exons are joined together to form mature mRNA.
8. 5’ END CAPPING
• At the end of transcription, the 5' end of the RNA transcript contains a free
triphosphate group since it was the first incorporated nucleotide in the chain.
The capping process replaces the triphosphate group with another structure
called the "cap". The cap is added by the enzyme guanyl transferase. This
enzyme catalyzes the reaction between the 5' end of the RNA transcript and
a guanine triphosphate (GTP) molecule.
• In the reaction, the beta phosphate of the RNA transcript displaces a
pyrophosphate group at the 5' position of the GTP molecule. The cap is
formed through a 5'-5' linkage between the two substrates .
• Capping protects the 5’ from enzymatic degradation in the nucleus and
assists in export to the cytosol.
• Eukaryotic m RNAs lacking the cap are not efficiently translated.
9.
10. The Poly A Tail
• Post-transcriptional RNA processing at the opposite end of the transcript
comes in the form of a string of adenine bases attached to the end of the
synthesized RNA chain.
• The addition of the adenines is catalyzed by the enzyme poly (A) polymerase.
• The mRNA is first cleaved about 20 nucleotides downstream from an AAUAA
recognition sequence
• Another enzyme, poly(A) polymerase, adds a poly(A) tail which is
subsequently extended to as many as 200 A residues.
• The poly(A) tail appears to protect the 3' end of mRNA from 3' 5'
exonuclease attack.
• Histone and interferon's mRNAs lack poly A tail.
• After the m-RNA enters the cytosol, the poly A tail is gradually shortened.
11.
12. SPLICING
• Removal of introns (Splicing)
• Introns or intervening sequences are the RNA sequences which do
not code for the proteins.
• These introns are removed from the primary transcript in the
nucleus, exons (coding sequences) are ligated to form the mRNA
molecule, and the mRNA molecule is transported to the cytoplasm.
• The molecular machine that accomplishes the task of splicing is
known as the spliceosome.
• Small nuclear RNA molecules that recognize splice sites in the pre-
mRNA sequence.
• The excised intron is released as a "lariat" structure, which is
degraded
13.
14. Alternative Splicing
• Alternative patterns of RNA splicing is adapted for the synthesis of
tissue-specific proteins.(antibodies)
• The pre-m RNA molecules from some genes can be spliced in two
or more alternative ways in different tissues.
• This produces multiple variations of the m RNA and thus diverse
set of proteins can be synthesized from a given set of genes .
• Introns are removed from the primary transcript in the nucleus,
exons (coding sequences) are ligated to form the mRNA molecule.
(After removal of all the introns, the mature m RNA molecules leave
the nucleus by passing in to the cytosol through pores in to the
nuclear membrane)
15. Alternative splicing accomplishes this in two ways:
1) by splicing together exons from two different primary RNA transcripts in a
process called trans- splicing
2) by splicing out entire exons.