1. DNA replication is the process by which daughter DNA molecules are synthesized from a parental DNA template. It ensures the genetic information is transferred to the next generation with high fidelity.
2. Replication occurs semi-conservatively such that each new double helix contains one strand from the original parent DNA and one newly synthesized strand. It also occurs bidirectionally from an origin of replication.
3. DNA polymerases are the key enzymes that catalyze DNA synthesis. Other important enzymes and proteins include primase, helicase, topoisomerase, ligase, and single-stranded DNA binding proteins. Together they facilitate the initiation, elongation and termination of DNA replication.
RNA Polymerase
Introduction
Purification
History
PRODUCTS OF RNAP
Messenger RNA
Non-coding RNA or "RNA genes
Transfer RNA
Ribosomal RNA
Micro RNA
Catalytic RNA (Ribozyme)
prokaryotic and eukaryotic
Transcription by RNA Polymerase
TYPES OF RNA POLYMERASE
Type I
Type II
Type III
Prokaryotic Transcription Unit
EXPRESSION OF A PROKARYOTIC GENE
Prokaryotic Polycistronic Message Codes for Several Different Proteins
Eukaryotic Transcription Unit
ENHANCERS AND SILENCERS
RESULT OF THE TRANSCRIPTION CYCLE
RNAP III TRANSCRIBES HUMAN MICRORNAS
RNAP I–specific subunits promotepolymerase clustering to enhance the rRNA genetranscription cycle
RNAP II–TFIIB STRUCTURE ANDMECHANISM OF TRANSCRIPTION INITIATION
FIVE CHECKPOINTS MAINTAINING THE FIDELITY OFTRANSCRIPTION BY RNAP IN STRUCTURAL ANDENERGETIC DETAILS
Replication Introduction , DNA replicating Models , Meselson and Stahl Experiments , Circuler Model of DNA replication , Replication in Prokaryotes , Replication In Eukaryotes , Comparison Between Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes Replicaton and PCR (Polymerease Chain Reaction)
Eukaryotic transcription is carried out in the nucleus of the cell and proceeds in three sequential stages: initiation, elongation, and termination. Eukaryotes require transcription factors to first bind to the promoter region and then help recruit the appropriate polymerase.
RNA Polymerase
Introduction
Purification
History
PRODUCTS OF RNAP
Messenger RNA
Non-coding RNA or "RNA genes
Transfer RNA
Ribosomal RNA
Micro RNA
Catalytic RNA (Ribozyme)
prokaryotic and eukaryotic
Transcription by RNA Polymerase
TYPES OF RNA POLYMERASE
Type I
Type II
Type III
Prokaryotic Transcription Unit
EXPRESSION OF A PROKARYOTIC GENE
Prokaryotic Polycistronic Message Codes for Several Different Proteins
Eukaryotic Transcription Unit
ENHANCERS AND SILENCERS
RESULT OF THE TRANSCRIPTION CYCLE
RNAP III TRANSCRIBES HUMAN MICRORNAS
RNAP I–specific subunits promotepolymerase clustering to enhance the rRNA genetranscription cycle
RNAP II–TFIIB STRUCTURE ANDMECHANISM OF TRANSCRIPTION INITIATION
FIVE CHECKPOINTS MAINTAINING THE FIDELITY OFTRANSCRIPTION BY RNAP IN STRUCTURAL ANDENERGETIC DETAILS
Replication Introduction , DNA replicating Models , Meselson and Stahl Experiments , Circuler Model of DNA replication , Replication in Prokaryotes , Replication In Eukaryotes , Comparison Between Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes Replicaton and PCR (Polymerease Chain Reaction)
Eukaryotic transcription is carried out in the nucleus of the cell and proceeds in three sequential stages: initiation, elongation, and termination. Eukaryotes require transcription factors to first bind to the promoter region and then help recruit the appropriate polymerase.
SOS response was discovered by Miroslav Radman. It's a part of DNA repair system- synthesizes enzymes required for DNA repair. Cellular response to UV damage.
This presentation is about the transcription machinery that is required for the transcription in eukaryotes. The comparison between the transcription factors involved in prokaryotes and eukaryotes. The initiation of transcription and how it helps in producing a mRNA.
Alternative splicing is a deviation from the conventional splicing as it removes introns in a different manner. It has a lot of significance in the development of diseases like cancers and in plants adapting to various stress conditions.
SOS response was discovered by Miroslav Radman. It's a part of DNA repair system- synthesizes enzymes required for DNA repair. Cellular response to UV damage.
This presentation is about the transcription machinery that is required for the transcription in eukaryotes. The comparison between the transcription factors involved in prokaryotes and eukaryotes. The initiation of transcription and how it helps in producing a mRNA.
Alternative splicing is a deviation from the conventional splicing as it removes introns in a different manner. It has a lot of significance in the development of diseases like cancers and in plants adapting to various stress conditions.
An Overview...
Definition of Translation.
Def. of Eukaryotes.
Translation: An Overview.
Components of Translation.
Some Enzymes .
Ribosome Role.
Mechanism of Translation.
Initiation.
Scanning Model of Initiation.
Initiation Factors.
Animation.
Elongation.
Chain Elongation: Translocation.
Animation.
Termination.
Animation....
It's not perfect still... what are your views friends?
This presentation is all about the different shapes in bacteria. This can help you in determining shapes that you do in your experiments in Microbiology. Hope this can help. :-)
DNA replication is the process by which DNA makes a copy of itself during cell division.The separation of the two single strands of DNA creates a 'Y' shape called a replication 'fork'. The two separated strands will act as templates for making the new strands of DNA.
“This structure has novel features which are of considerable biological interest.”
This may be the science most famous statement, which appeared in April 1953 in the scientific paper where James Watson and Francis Crick presented the structure of the DNA-helix.
“It has not escaped our notice that the specific pairing we have postulated immediately suggests a possible copying mechanism for the genetic material."
A reaction in which daughter DNAs are synthesized using the parental DNAs as the template.
Transferring the genetic information to the descendant generation with a high fidelity
Semi-conservative replication
Bidirectional replication
Semi-continuous replication
High fidelity
Replication starts from unwinding the dsDNA at a particular point (called origin), followed by the synthesis on each strand.
The parental dsDNA and two newly formed dsDNA form a Y-shape structure called replication fork.
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Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
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Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
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A Strategic Approach: GenAI in EducationPeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
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It is possible to hide or invisible some fields in odoo. Commonly using “invisible” attribute in the field definition to invisible the fields. This slide will show how to make a field invisible in odoo 17.
June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
Unit 8 - Information and Communication Technology (Paper I).pdfThiyagu K
This slides describes the basic concepts of ICT, basics of Email, Emerging Technology and Digital Initiatives in Education. This presentations aligns with the UGC Paper I syllabus.
3. • Replication: synthesis of daughter
DNA from parental DNA
• Transcription: synthesis of RNA using
DNA as the template
• Translation: protein synthesis using
mRNA molecules as the template
• Reverse transcription: synthesis of
DNA using RNA as the template
3
6. DNA replication
• A reaction in which daughter DNAs are
synthesized using the parental DNAs as
the template.
• Transferring the genetic information to the
descendant generation with a high fidelity
replication
parental DNA
daughter DNA6
7. Daughter strand synthesis
• Chemical formulation:
• The nature of DNA replication is a
series of 3´- 5´phosphodiester bond
formation catalyzed by a group of
enzymes.
7
8. The DNA backbone
• Putting the DNA
backbone together
– refer to the 3′ and 5′ ends of
the DNA
PO4
5′ CH2
4′
base
O
1′
C
3′
O
–
O P O
O
5′ CH2
2′
base
O
4′
1′
3′
OH
2′
10. DNA replication system
Template:
double stranded DNA
Substrate:
dNTP
Primer:
short RNA fragment with a
free 3´-OH end
Enzyme:
DNA-dependent DNA
polymerase (DDDP),
other enzymes,
protein factor
10
13. Semiconservative replication
Half of the parental DNA molecule is
conserved in each new double helix,
paired with a newly synthesized
complementary strand. This is called
semiconservative replication
13
15. Experiment of DNA semiconservative replication
"Heavy" DNA(15N)
grow in 14N
medium
The first
generation
grow in 14N
medium
The second
generation
15
17. §1.2 Bidirectional Replication
• Replication starts from unwinding the
dsDNA at a particular point (called
origin), followed by the synthesis on
each strand.
• The parental dsDNA and two newly
formed dsDNA form a Y-shape
structure called replication fork.
17
19. Bidirectional replication
• Once the dsDNA is opened at the
origin, two replication forks are
formed spontaneously.
• These two replication forks move in
opposite directions as the syntheses
continue.
19
21. Replication of prokaryotes
The replication
process starts
from the origin,
and proceeds
in two opposite
directions. It is
named θ
replication.
21
22. Replication of eukaryotes
• Chromosomes of eukaryotes have
multiple origins.
• The space between two adjacent
origins is called the replicon, a
functional unit of replication.
22
24. §1.3 Semi-continuous Replication
The daughter strands on two template
strands are synthesized differently since
the replication process obeys the
principle that DNA is synthesized from
the 5´ end to the 3´end.
24
25. Leading strand
On the template having the 3´- end, the
daughter strand is synthesized
continuously in the 5’-3’ direction. This
strand is referred to as the leading
strand.
3'
5'
3'
3'
direction of unwinding
5'
5'
25
27. Okazaki fragments
• Many DNA fragments are synthesized
sequentially on the DNA template
strand having the 5´- end. These DNA
fragments are called Okazaki
fragments. They are 1000 – 2000 nt
long for prokaryotes and 100-150 nt
long for eukaryotes.
• The daughter strand consisting of
Okazaki fragments is called the
lagging strand.
27
28. Semi-continuous replication
Continuous synthesis of the leading
strand and discontinuous synthesis of
the lagging strand represent a unique
feature of DNA replication. It is
referred to as the semi-continuous
replication.
28
30. Enzymes and protein factors
protein
Mr
#
function
Dna A protein
50,000
1
recognize origin
Dna B protein
300,000
6
open dsDNA
Dna C protein
29,000
1
assist Dna B binding
DNA pol
Elongate the DNA
strands
Dna G protein
60,000
1
synthesize RNA primer
SSB
75,600
4
single-strand binding
DNA topoisomerase
400,000
4
release supercoil
constraint
30
31. §2.1 DNA Polymerase
DNA-pol of prokaryotes
• The first DNAdependent DNA
polymerase (short for
DNA-pol I) was
discovered in 1958 by
Arthur Kornberg who
received Nobel Prize in
physiology or medicine
in 1959.
31
32. • Later, DNA-pol II and DNA-pol III
were identified in experiments using
mutated E.coli cell line.
• All of them possess the following
biological activity.
1. 5′→3′ polymerizing
2. exonuclease
32
35. Klenow fragment
N end
DNA-pol Ⅰ
C end
caroid
• small fragment (323 AA): having 5´→3´
exonuclease activity
• large fragment (604 AA): called Klenow
fragment, having DNA polymerization
and 3´→5´exonuclease activity
35
36. DNA-pol II
• Temporary functional when DNA-pol I
and DNA-pol III are not functional
• Still capable for doing synthesis on
the damaged template
• Participating in DNA repairing
36
37. DNA-pol III
• A heterodimer enzyme composed of
ten different subunits
• Having the highest polymerization
activity (105 nt/min)
• The true enzyme responsible for the
elongation process
37
38. Structure of DNA-pol III
α : has 5´→ 3´
polymerizing activity
ε : has 3´→ 5´
exonuclease activity
and plays a key role to
ensure the replication
fidelity.
θ: maintain
heterodimer structure
38
41. DNA-pol of eukaryotes
DNA-pol α: initiate replication
and synthesize primers
DNA-pol β: replication with
low fidelity
DnaG,
primase
repairing
DNA-pol γ: polymerization in
mitochondria
DNA-pol δ: elongation
DNA-pol III
DNA-pol ε: proofreading and
filling gap
DNA-pol I
41
42. §2.2 Primase
• Also called DnaG
• Primase is able to synthesize primers
using free NTPs as the substrate and
the ssDNA as the template.
• Primers are short RNA fragments of a
several decades of nucleotides long.
42
44. • Primers provide free 3´-OH groups to
react with the α-P atom of dNTP to
form phosphoester bonds.
• Primase, DnaB, DnaC and an origin
form a primosome complex at the
initiation phase.
44
45. §2.3 Helicase
• Also referred to as DnaB.
• It opens the double strand DNA with
consuming ATP.
• The opening process with the
assistance of DnaA and DnaC
45
46. §2.4 SSB protein
• Stand for single strand DNA binding
protein
• SSB protein maintains the DNA
template in the single strand form in
order to
• prevent the dsDNA formation;
• protect the vulnerable ssDNA from
nucleases.
46
47. §2.5 Topoisomerase
• Opening the dsDNA will create
supercoil ahead of replication forks.
• The supercoil constraint needs to be
released by topoisomerases.
47
49. • The interconversion of topoisomers
of dsDNA is catalyzed by a
topoisomerase in a three-step
process:
• Cleavage of one or both strands
of DNA
• Passage of a segment of DNA
through this break
• Resealing of the DNA break
49
50. Topoisomerase I (topo I)
• Also called ω-protein in prokaryotes.
• It cuts a phosphoester bond on one
DNA strand, rotates the broken DNA
freely around the other strand to relax
the constraint, and reseals the cut.
50
51. Topoisomerase II (topo II)
• It is named gyrase in prokaryotes.
• It cuts phosphoester bonds on both
strands of dsDNA, releases the
supercoil constraint, and reforms the
phosphoester bonds.
• It can change dsDNA into the
negative supercoil state with
consumption of ATP.
51
54. • Connect two adjacent ssDNA strands
by joining the 3´-OH of one DNA
strand to the 5´-P of another DNA
strand.
• Sealing the nick in the process of
replication, repairing, recombination,
and splicing.
54
55. §2.7 Replication Fidelity
• Replication based on the principle of
base pairing is crucial to the high
accuracy of the genetic information
transfer.
• Enzymes use two mechanisms to
ensure the replication fidelity.
– Proofreading and real-time correction
– Base selection
55
56. Proofreading and correction
• DNA-pol I has the function to correct
the mismatched nucleotides.
• It identifies the mismatched
nucleotide, removes it using the 3´- 5´
exonuclease activity, add a correct
base, and continues the replication.
56
59. Sequential actions
• Initiation: recognize the starting point,
separate dsDNA, primer synthesis, …
• Elongation: add dNTPs to the existing
strand, form phosphoester bonds,
correct the mismatch bases, extending
the DNA strand, …
• Termination: stop the replication
59
60. §3.1 Replication of prokaryotes
a. Initiation
• The replication starts at a particular
point called origin.
• The origin of E. coli, ori C, is at the
location of 82.
• The structure of the origin is 248 bp
long and AT-rich.
60
64. Formation of replication fork
• DnaA recognizes ori C.
• DnaB and DnaC join the DNA-DnaA
complex, open the local AT-rich
region, and move on the template
downstream further to separate
enough space.
• DnaA is replaced gradually.
• SSB protein binds the complex to
stabilize ssDNA.
64
65. Primer synthesis
• Primase joins and forms a complex
called primosome.
• Primase starts the synthesis of
primers on the ssDNA template using
NTP as the substrates in the 5´- 3´
direction at the expense of ATP.
• The short RNA fragments provide free
3´-OH groups for DNA elongation.
65
66. Releasing supercoil constraint
• The supercoil constraints are
generated ahead of the replication
forks.
• Topoisomerase binds to the dsDNA
region just before the replication
forks to release the supercoil
constraint.
• The negatively supercoiled DNA
serves as a better template than the
positively supercoiled DNA.
66
68. b. Elongation
• dNTPs are continuously connected to
the primer or the nascent DNA chain
by DNA-pol III.
• The core enzymes (α 、、 and θ )
catalyze the synthesis of leading and
lagging strands, respectively.
• The nature of the chain elongation is
the series formation of the
phosphodiester bonds.
68
70. • The synthesis
direction of the
leading strand is
the same as that of
the replication fork.
• The synthesis
direction of the
latest Okazaki
fragment is also the
same as that of the
replication fork.
70
72. Lagging strand synthesis
• Primers on Okazaki fragments are
digested by RNase.
• The gaps are filled by DNA-pol I in the
5´→3´direction.
• The nick between the 5´end of one
fragment and the 3´end of the next
fragment is sealed by ligase.
72
74. c. Termination
• The replication of E. coli is
bidirectional from one origin, and the
two replication forks must meet at
one point called ter at 32.
• All the primers will be removed, and
all the fragments will be connected
by DNA-pol I and ligase.
74
75. §3.2 Replication of Eukaryotes
• DNA replication is closely related
with cell cycle.
• Multiple origins on one chromosome,
and replications are activated in a
sequential order rather than
simultaneously.
75
77. Initiation
• The eukaryotic origins are shorter
than that of E. coli.
• Requires DNA-pol α (primase
activity) and DNA-pol δ (polymerase
activity and helicase activity).
• Needs topoisomerase and replication
factors (RF) to assist.
77
78. b. Elongation
• DNA replication and nucleosome
assembling occur simultaneously.
• Overall replication speed is
compatible with that of prokaryotes.
78
80. Telomere
• The terminal structure of eukaryotic
DNA of chromosomes is called
telomere.
• Telomere is composed of terminal
DNA sequence and protein.
• The sequence of typical telomeres is
rich in T and G.
• The telomere structure is crucial to
keep the termini of chromosomes in
the cell from becoming entangled and
sticking to each other.
80
81. Telomerase
• The eukaryotic cells use telomerase to
maintain the integrity of DNA telomere.
• The telomerase is composed of
telomerase RNA
telomerase association protein
telomerase reverse transcriptase
• It is able to synthesize DNA using RNA
as the template.
81
85. §4.1 Reverse Transcription
• The genetic information carrier of
some biological systems is ssRNA
instead of dsDNA (such as ssRNA
viruses).
• The information flow is from RNA to
DNA, opposite to the normal process.
• This special replication mode is called
reverse transcription.
85
88. Process of Reverse transcription
• Synthesis of ssDNA complementary
to ssRNA, forming a RNA-DNA
hybrid.
• Hydrolysis of ssRNA in the RNA-DNA
hybrid by RNase activity of reverse
transcriptase, leaving ssDNA.
• Synthesis of the second ssDNA using
the left ssDNA as the template,
forming a DNA-DNA duplex.
88
90. Reverse transcriptase
Reverse transcriptase is the enzyme
for the reverse transcription. It has
activity of three kinds of enzymes:
• RNA-dependent DNA polymerase
• RNase
• DNA-dependent DNA polymerase
90
91. Significance of RT
• An important discovery in life science
and molecular biology
• RNA plays a key role just like DNA in
the genetic information transfer and
gene expression process.
• RNA could be the molecule
developed earlier than DNA in
evolution.
• RT is the supplementary to the
91
92. Significance of RT
• This discovery enriches the
understanding about the cancercausing theory of viruses. (cancer
genes in RT viruses, and HIV having
RT function)
• Reverse transcriptase has become a
extremely important tool in molecular
biology to select the target genes.
92