Data transfer and manipulation
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Computer instructions can be classified into three categories: data transfer instructions, data manipulation instructions, and program control instructions. Data transfer instructions move data between locations without changing it. Data manipulation instructions perform arithmetic, logical, and shift operations. Program control instructions provide decision-making and allow changing the flow of a program. Common data transfer instructions include load, store, move, exchange, input, and output. Arithmetic instructions perform addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. Logical and bit manipulation instructions perform AND, OR, and XOR operations on bits. Shift instructions move bits left or right. Program control instructions include branch, jump, skip, call, and return.
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Data transfer and manipulation
1) Data transfer instructions move data between processor registers and memory without changing the data. Common instructions include load, store, move, exchange, input, and output.
2) Data manipulation instructions perform arithmetic, logical, and bitwise operations on data to provide computational capabilities. Examples include add, subtract, multiply, divide, and, or, xor.
3) Program control instructions alter the program flow by branching, jumping, calling subroutines, handling interrupts, and returning from subroutines. Status bits track results of operations.
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Computer instructions
An instruction format consists of bits that specify an operation to perform on data in computer memory. The processor fetches instructions from memory and decodes the bits to execute them. Instruction formats have operation codes to define operations like addition and an address field to specify where data is located. Computers may have different instruction sets.
Microprogrammed Control Unit
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Register transfer and micro-operation
1) The document discusses different types of micro-operations including arithmetic, logic, shift, and register transfer micro-operations.
2) It provides examples of common arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction, increment, and decrement. It also describes logic operations like AND, OR, XOR, and complement.
3) Shift micro-operations include logical shifts, circular shifts, and arithmetic shifts which affect the serial input differently.
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Data transfer and manipulation
1) Data transfer instructions move data between processor registers and memory without changing the data. Common instructions include load, store, move, exchange, input, and output.
2) Data manipulation instructions perform arithmetic, logical, and bitwise operations on data to provide computational capabilities. Examples include add, subtract, multiply, divide, and, or, xor.
3) Program control instructions alter the program flow by branching, jumping, calling subroutines, handling interrupts, and returning from subroutines. Status bits track results of operations.
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Timing and control
The document discusses timing and control in basic computers. It describes two types of control organizations: hardwired control and microprogram control. Hardwired control implements control logic with gates and flip-flops, allowing for fast operation. Microprogram control stores control information in a control memory that programs required microoperations. The document also provides details on the components and functioning of a hardwired control unit, including an instruction register, control logic gates, decoders, and sequence counter used to control the timing of registers based on clock pulses.
Computer instructions
An instruction format consists of bits that specify an operation to perform on data in computer memory. The processor fetches instructions from memory and decodes the bits to execute them. Instruction formats have operation codes to define operations like addition and an address field to specify where data is located. Computers may have different instruction sets.
Microprogrammed Control Unit
(Ref : Computer System Architecture by Morris Mano 3rd edition) : Microprogrammed Control unit, micro instructions, micro operations, symbolic and binary microprogram.
Interrupt
Interrupts allow input/output devices to alert the processor when they are ready. When an interrupt request occurs, the processor saves its context and jumps to an interrupt service routine. It then acknowledges the interrupt and restores its context before returning to the original instruction. Processors have mechanisms for prioritizing interrupts and enabling/disabling them to avoid infinite loops or unintended requests.
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3) Shift micro-operations include logical shifts, circular shifts, and arithmetic shifts which affect the serial input differently.
Instruction codes
An instruction code consists of an operation code and operand(s) that specify the operation to perform and data to use. Operation codes are binary codes that define operations like addition, subtraction, etc. Early computers stored programs and data in separate memory sections and used a single accumulator register. Modern computers have multiple registers for temporary storage and performing operations faster than using only memory. Computer instructions encode an operation code and operand fields to specify the basic operations to perform on data stored in registers or memory.
Instruction format
An instruction format specifies an operation code and operands. There are three main types of instruction formats: three address instructions specify memory addresses for two operands and one destination; two address instructions specify two memory locations or registers with the destination assumed to be the first operand; and one address instructions use a single accumulator register for all data manipulation. Addressing modes further specify how the address field of an instruction is interpreted to determine the effective address of an operand. Common addressing modes include immediate, register, register indirect, auto-increment/decrement, direct, indirect, relative, indexed, and base register addressing.
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Data manipulation instructions perform arithmetic, logical, and shift operations on data to provide computational abilities. Arithmetic instructions include addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. Logical instructions perform AND, OR, XOR operations on bits.
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This document provides an overview of concurrency control and two-phase locking protocol. It discusses lock-based concurrency control, two-phase locking protocol, deadlocks, and strategies for handling deadlocks such as deadlock prevention, avoidance, and detection and recovery. The key aspects covered are the lock compatibility matrix, differences between shared and exclusive locks, requirements for serializability under two-phase locking, and the four conditions required for a deadlock.
Education
This short document discusses education and big data. It was written by C.Rajeswari, who is pursuing an II-MSc(IT) degree from Nadar saraswathi college of arts and science in Theni. The author thanks the reader for their time.
Formal verification
Formal verification involves using mathematical techniques to prove that computer programs satisfy certain properties. There are three main techniques: input-output assertions use predicates associated with code points to show relations will hold; weakest preconditions work backwards from desired outputs to find necessary inputs; and structural induction proves properties by showing they hold for base cases and are preserved as the structure increases in size. The document provides examples and explanations of each technique.
Transaction management
This document discusses transaction management and is written by C.Rajeswari, who is studying for her II - MSc (IT) degree at Nadar saraswathi college of arts and science in Theni. The document covers transaction management but does not provide any details about the topic. The author thanks the reader for their time.
Multi thread
Multi-threaded programming allows a program to split into multiple threads that can run concurrently. C.Rajeswari from Nadar Saraswathi College of Arts and Science in Theni wrote about multi-threaded programming. The document is signed off with thanks.
System testing
System testing validates the fully integrated software product by evaluating end-to-end system specifications. The software is developed in units and interfaced with other software and hardware to create a complete computer system. Regression testing confirms that new modifications have not caused new bugs and that old bugs have not reappeared from added modules over time.
software maintenance
This document discusses software maintenance. It defines software maintenance as the modification of a software product after delivery to correct faults, improve performance, or adapt to changes. Approximately 40-70% of software costs are for maintenance over the 5-10 year lifespan of a product. Maintenance includes correcting errors, enhancing capabilities, removing obsolete features, and optimizing performance. The goals of maintenance are to fix bugs, enhance functionality, update the software, and adapt it to environmental changes. The majority of maintenance work is perfective and adaptive in nature. The document outlines best practices for development and management to improve maintainability.
exception handling
This document discusses exception handling in programming. It defines errors and exceptions, and describes the exception handling mechanism which involves try, catch, and throw blocks. The try block contains code that might cause an exception. When an exception occurs, it is thrown using throw. The catch block catches any exceptions thrown in the try block and handles them. Exceptions can be of different types (synchronous or asynchronous) and caught using multiple catch blocks or a generic catch-all. Exceptions can also be re-thrown to outer try/catch blocks using throw without arguments.
e governance
E-governance refers to the use of technology by the government to improve efficiency and services for citizens. It aims to make governance smart, moral, accountable, responsive and transparent. E-governance uses information and communication technologies like the internet and mobile networks to enhance the quality and range of information and services provided to citizens in a cost-effective manner. The major benefits of e-governance include being cost-effective, increasing speed, efficiency and convenience for citizens while reducing the use of hard copies. However, there are also challenges to implementing e-governance such as budget constraints, lack of IT literacy and electricity in rural areas, as well as lack of integration between government departments and languages.
recovery management
This document discusses recovery management and concurrency controls in databases. It defines recovery management as the process of restoring a database to its most recent consistent state after a failure. There are three states in recovery: pre-condition (consistent), condition (failure occurs), and post-condition (restore to pre-failure state). The types of failures are transaction, system, and media failures. Concurrency control manages simultaneous transactions to maintain consistency and prevent issues like lost updates, temporary updates, and incorrect summaries that can occur from concurrent execution.
Implementing polymorphism
The document discusses polymorphism and interfaces in object-oriented programming. It defines polymorphism as an object being able to take on multiple forms and provides the example of a parent class reference referring to a child class object. Interfaces are described as allowing polymorphism to be defined declaratively separate from implementation. The key points are that interfaces define methods but do not implement them, classes implementing interfaces must implement the interface methods, and interfaces can extend other interfaces similar to class inheritance.
Buffer managements
The document discusses the role and functions of database buffers and buffer managers. It states that a database buffer is a temporary storage area in memory used to hold copies of database blocks from disk. The buffer manager is responsible for bringing pages from disk into the buffer pool in memory as needed. It manages the buffer pool, which divides main memory into pages called frames to cache data and minimize disk access. The buffer manager controls data access between memory and disk to improve database performance.
os linux
B.Kohila MSc(IT) presents on operating systems and Linux. She discusses her 13 years of experience using Linux distributions from single-floppy disk versions to current distributions like Ubuntu. She explains computer system architectures, what an operating system is, and provides a brief introduction to Linux, covering its origins in 1991 and growth to include many millions of lines of code. Finally, she discusses where Linux is headed, including enterprise servers, embedded devices, and improvements for end users.
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Data transfer and manipulation
- 2. Items • Definition • Data transfer instruction • Data manipulation Arithmetic instruction Logical and bit manipulation instruction Shift instruction • Program control instruction
- 3. Data transfer and manipulation Computer provides an extensive set of instruction to give the user flexibility to carry out various computational task. The instruction set of different computer differ from each other mostly in the way the operands are determined from address and mode field. The actual operation available in the istruction from one computer to another.
- 4. Cont… Computer instruction can be classified into three categories:- • Data transfer instruction • Data manipulation instruction • Program control Data transfer instruction cause transfer of data from one location to another with out changing the binary information content.
- 5. Cont… Data manipulation instruction are those perform arithmetic, logical and shift operation. The program taken control instruction provide decision making capability and changes to taken by program when executed in the computer.
- 6. Data transfer instruction • Data transfer instruction move data from one place in the computer to another with out changing the data contents. • The most common transfer are between memory and processer register between processer register and input or output and between processer register themselves.
- 7. Cont… NAME MNEMONIC Load LD Store ST Move MOV Exchange XCH Input IN Output OUT Push PUSH Pop POP
- 8. Data manipulation instruction Data manipulation instruction perform operation on data and provide the computational capabilities for computer. There are three basic types • Arithmetic instruction • Logical ad bit manipulation instruction • Shift instruction
- 9. Arithmetic instruction • The basic arithmetic operation are addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. • Most computer provide instruction for all four operation. • Some small computer have only addition and possibly subtraction instruction the multiplication and division must then be generated by means of software subroutine.
- 10. Logical and bit manipulation instruction • Logical instruction perform binary operation on strings of bits stored in register. They are useful for manipulation individual bits or group of bits that represent binary coded information. • The AND, OR and XOR instruction produce the corresponding logical operation on individual bits of the operands. Although they performed the Boolean operations.
- 11. Shift instruction • Instruction to shift the contents of an operand are quite useful and are often provide in several variations. • Shift are operations in which the bit of a word are moved to the left or right. • The bit shifted in at the end of the word determines the type of the shift used. • Shift instruction may specify either logical shift , arithmetic shift or rotate type operation. In either case the shift to be the right or to the left
- 12. Program control • Instruction are always stored in successive memory location. • When processed in the CPU the instruction are fetched from consecutive memory location executed. • Each time an instruction is fetched from memory. The program counter is incremented so that it contains the address of the next instruction in sequences.
- 13. Cont… Name Mnemonic Branch BR Jump JMP Skip SKP Call CALL Return RET