CISC & RISC Architecture with contents
History Of CISC & RISC
Need Of CISC
CISC
CISC Characteristics
CISC Architecture
The Search for RISC
RISC Characteristics
Bus Architecture
Pipeline Architecture
Compiler Structure
Commercial Application
Reference
Memory reference instructions used in computer architecture is well demonstrated with examples. It will probably help you understand each referencing instructions.
CISC & RISC Architecture with contents
History Of CISC & RISC
Need Of CISC
CISC
CISC Characteristics
CISC Architecture
The Search for RISC
RISC Characteristics
Bus Architecture
Pipeline Architecture
Compiler Structure
Commercial Application
Reference
Memory reference instructions used in computer architecture is well demonstrated with examples. It will probably help you understand each referencing instructions.
Richard's entangled aventures in wonderlandRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
This presentation explores a brief idea about the structural and functional attributes of nucleotides, the structure and function of genetic materials along with the impact of UV rays and pH upon them.
Slide 1: Title Slide
Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Slide 2: Introduction to Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Definition: Extrachromosomal inheritance refers to the transmission of genetic material that is not found within the nucleus.
Key Components: Involves genes located in mitochondria, chloroplasts, and plasmids.
Slide 3: Mitochondrial Inheritance
Mitochondria: Organelles responsible for energy production.
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in mitochondria.
Inheritance Pattern: Maternally inherited, meaning it is passed from mothers to all their offspring.
Diseases: Examples include Leber’s hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) and mitochondrial myopathy.
Slide 4: Chloroplast Inheritance
Chloroplasts: Organelles responsible for photosynthesis in plants.
Chloroplast DNA (cpDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in chloroplasts.
Inheritance Pattern: Often maternally inherited in most plants, but can vary in some species.
Examples: Variegation in plants, where leaf color patterns are determined by chloroplast DNA.
Slide 5: Plasmid Inheritance
Plasmids: Small, circular DNA molecules found in bacteria and some eukaryotes.
Features: Can carry antibiotic resistance genes and can be transferred between cells through processes like conjugation.
Significance: Important in biotechnology for gene cloning and genetic engineering.
Slide 6: Mechanisms of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Non-Mendelian Patterns: Do not follow Mendel’s laws of inheritance.
Cytoplasmic Segregation: During cell division, organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts are randomly distributed to daughter cells.
Heteroplasmy: Presence of more than one type of organellar genome within a cell, leading to variation in expression.
Slide 7: Examples of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Four O’clock Plant (Mirabilis jalapa): Shows variegated leaves due to different cpDNA in leaf cells.
Petite Mutants in Yeast: Result from mutations in mitochondrial DNA affecting respiration.
Slide 8: Importance of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Evolution: Provides insight into the evolution of eukaryotic cells.
Medicine: Understanding mitochondrial inheritance helps in diagnosing and treating mitochondrial diseases.
Agriculture: Chloroplast inheritance can be used in plant breeding and genetic modification.
Slide 9: Recent Research and Advances
Gene Editing: Techniques like CRISPR-Cas9 are being used to edit mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA.
Therapies: Development of mitochondrial replacement therapy (MRT) for preventing mitochondrial diseases.
Slide 10: Conclusion
Summary: Extrachromosomal inheritance involves the transmission of genetic material outside the nucleus and plays a crucial role in genetics, medicine, and biotechnology.
Future Directions: Continued research and technological advancements hold promise for new treatments and applications.
Slide 11: Questions and Discussion
Invite Audience: Open the floor for any questions or further discussion on the topic.
A brief information about the SCOP protein database used in bioinformatics.
The Structural Classification of Proteins (SCOP) database is a comprehensive and authoritative resource for the structural and evolutionary relationships of proteins. It provides a detailed and curated classification of protein structures, grouping them into families, superfamilies, and folds based on their structural and sequence similarities.
(May 29th, 2024) Advancements in Intravital Microscopy- Insights for Preclini...Scintica Instrumentation
Intravital microscopy (IVM) is a powerful tool utilized to study cellular behavior over time and space in vivo. Much of our understanding of cell biology has been accomplished using various in vitro and ex vivo methods; however, these studies do not necessarily reflect the natural dynamics of biological processes. Unlike traditional cell culture or fixed tissue imaging, IVM allows for the ultra-fast high-resolution imaging of cellular processes over time and space and were studied in its natural environment. Real-time visualization of biological processes in the context of an intact organism helps maintain physiological relevance and provide insights into the progression of disease, response to treatments or developmental processes.
In this webinar we give an overview of advanced applications of the IVM system in preclinical research. IVIM technology is a provider of all-in-one intravital microscopy systems and solutions optimized for in vivo imaging of live animal models at sub-micron resolution. The system’s unique features and user-friendly software enables researchers to probe fast dynamic biological processes such as immune cell tracking, cell-cell interaction as well as vascularization and tumor metastasis with exceptional detail. This webinar will also give an overview of IVM being utilized in drug development, offering a view into the intricate interaction between drugs/nanoparticles and tissues in vivo and allows for the evaluation of therapeutic intervention in a variety of tissues and organs. This interdisciplinary collaboration continues to drive the advancements of novel therapeutic strategies.
Observation of Io’s Resurfacing via Plume Deposition Using Ground-based Adapt...Sérgio Sacani
Since volcanic activity was first discovered on Io from Voyager images in 1979, changes
on Io’s surface have been monitored from both spacecraft and ground-based telescopes.
Here, we present the highest spatial resolution images of Io ever obtained from a groundbased telescope. These images, acquired by the SHARK-VIS instrument on the Large
Binocular Telescope, show evidence of a major resurfacing event on Io’s trailing hemisphere. When compared to the most recent spacecraft images, the SHARK-VIS images
show that a plume deposit from a powerful eruption at Pillan Patera has covered part
of the long-lived Pele plume deposit. Although this type of resurfacing event may be common on Io, few have been detected due to the rarity of spacecraft visits and the previously low spatial resolution available from Earth-based telescopes. The SHARK-VIS instrument ushers in a new era of high resolution imaging of Io’s surface using adaptive
optics at visible wavelengths.
This pdf is about the Schizophrenia.
For more details visit on YouTube; @SELF-EXPLANATORY;
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCAiarMZDNhe1A3Rnpr_WkzA/videos
Thanks...!
THE IMPORTANCE OF MARTIAN ATMOSPHERE SAMPLE RETURN.Sérgio Sacani
The return of a sample of near-surface atmosphere from Mars would facilitate answers to several first-order science questions surrounding the formation and evolution of the planet. One of the important aspects of terrestrial planet formation in general is the role that primary atmospheres played in influencing the chemistry and structure of the planets and their antecedents. Studies of the martian atmosphere can be used to investigate the role of a primary atmosphere in its history. Atmosphere samples would also inform our understanding of the near-surface chemistry of the planet, and ultimately the prospects for life. High-precision isotopic analyses of constituent gases are needed to address these questions, requiring that the analyses are made on returned samples rather than in situ.
3. I/O Organization
The Input / output organization of computer depends
upon the size of computer and the peripherals
connected to it. The I/O Subsystem of the computer,
provides an efficient mode of communication
between the central system and the outside
environment.
4. Peripheral Devices
An external device connected to an I/O module
Provide a means of exchanging data between the
external device environment and the computer.
Attach to the computer by a link to an I/O module
The link is used to exchange control, status, and
data between the I/O module and the external
device.
5. Peripheral Devices
The most common input output devices are:
i) Monitor
ii) Keyboard
iii) Mouse
iv) Printer
v) Magnetic tapes
The devices that are under the direct control of the
computer are said to be connected online.
6. Peripheral Devices
Three categories of external device:
Human readable
Suitable for communicating with the computer user
Video display terminals (VDTs), printers.
Machine readable
Suitable for communicating with equipment
Magnetic disk and tape systems, sensors and actuators.
Communication
Suitable for communicating with remote devices such as a
terminal, a machine readable device, or another
computer.
7.
8. Input - Output Interface
Input Output Interface provides a method for
transferring information between internal storage
(such as memory and CPU registers) and external
I/O devices. Peripherals connected to a computer
need special communication links for interfacing
them with the central processing unit.
9. Input - Output Interface
The purpose of communication link is to
resolve the differences that exist between
the central computer and each peripheral.
10. The Major Differences are:-
1. Peripherals are electromechanically and electromagnetic
devices and their manner of operation of the CPU and
memory, which are electronic devices. Therefore, a
conversion of signal values may be needed.
2. The data transfer rate of peripherals is usually slower
than the transfer rate of CPU and consequently, a
synchronization mechanism may be needed.
11. The Major Differences are:-
3. Data codes and formats in the peripherals differ from
the word format in the CPU and memory.
Peripherals- Byte, Block, …
CPU or memory- word.
4. The operating modes of peripherals are different from
each other and must be controlled so as not to disturb
the operation of other peripherals connected to the
CPU.
12. Input - Output Interface
To Resolve these differences, computer systems
include special hardware components between the
CPU and Peripherals to supervises and synchronizes
all input and out transfers. These components are
called Interface Units because they interface
between the processor bus and the peripheral devices.
13. i/o module function
Control and timing: cordinates the flow of traffic between
internal resources and external devices.
Processor communication: involves command decoding
data status reporting address recognition.
Error detection: detect and reports transmission errors.
Data buffering: perform the needed buffeing operation to
balance device and memory speeds.
Device communication: involves commands, status
information and data.
15. I/O BUS and Interface Module
It defines the typical link between the processor and
several peripherals. The I/O Bus consists of data
lines, address lines and control lines.
17. I/O Commands
There are four types of I/O commands that an I/O module may
receive when it is addressed by a processor:
Control
- used to activate a peripheral and tell it what to do.
Test
- used to test various status conditions associated with
an I/O module and its peripherals.
Read
- causes the I/O module to obtain an item of data from
the peripheral and place it in an internal buffer.
Write
- causes the I/O module to take an item of data from the
data bus and subsequently transmit that data item to the
peripheral.
18. Input / Output System
There are two methods in which the Processor can address the
input/output devices:
In the First arrangement, I/O devices are assigned particular addresses,
isolated from the address space assigned to the memory . The execution of an
input instruction at an input device address will cause the character stored in the
input register of that device to be transferred to a specific register in the CPU.
Similarly, the execution of an output instruction . This arrangement, called
”Shared I/O’’, in the case, the address and data lines from the CPU
can be shared between the memory and I/O devices. A separate control
line will have to be used. This is because of the need for executing input and
output instruction.
19.
20. Input/ Output System
The main Advantage of the Shared I/O arrangement is
the Separation between the memory address space and
that of the I/O devices.
Its main Disadvantage is the need to have special input
and output instruction in the processor instruction set.
21. processor Memory
Address Bus
Data Bus
Memory Control Bus
Figure( Memory-mapped I/O arrangement )
Output Device
(Graphic Display)
Input Device
(Keyboard)
Input/ Output System
22. The Second, possible I/O arrangement is deal with input and output
registers as if they are regular memory locations. For example, Read
Device 6 is equivalent to performing an input operation from the
input register in Device #6. Similarly, a write operation. This
arrangement is called Memory – Mapped I/O.
The main advantage of the memory-mapped I/O is the
use of the read and write instructions of the processor to
perform the input and output operations, respectively. It
eliminates the need for introducing special I/O instructions.
The main Disadvantage of the memory-mapped I/O is
the need to reserve a certain part of the memory address
space for addressing I/O devices, that is, a reduction in the
available memory address space.
23. I/O Mapping Summary
Memory mapped I/O
Devices and memory share an address space.
`I/O looks just like memory read/write
No special commands for I/O
Large selection of memory access commands
available
Isolated I/O
Separate address spaces
Need I/O or memory select lines
Special commands for I/O
Limited set
24. Input Output Techniques
Programmed I/O
Programmed i/o refers to data transfers initiated by a (cpu)
under driver software control to access registers or memory
on a device.
The cpu issues a command then waits for i/o operations to
be complete. As the cpu is faster than the i/o module, the
problem with programmed i/o is that the cpu has to wait
along time for the i/o module of concern to be ready for
either reception or transmission of data .the cpu, while
waiting must repeatedly check the status of the i/o module,
and this process is known as polling . As a result , the level
of the performance of the entire system is severely
degraded.
Programmed i/o basically works in these ways :
25. Programmed I/O - detail
•CPU requests I/O operation.
•I/O module performs operation.
•I/O module sets status bits.
•CPU checks status bits periodically.
•I/O module does not inform CPU
directly.
•I/O module does not interrupt CPU.
•CPU may wait or come back later.
26. I/O Commands
•CPU issues address
Identifies module (& device if >1 per module)
•CPU issues command
Control - telling module what to do
e.g. spin up disk
Test - check status
e.g. power? Error?
Read/Write
Module transfers data via buffer from/to
device
27. Interrupt Driven I/O
The CPU issues commands to the i/o module then proceeds with
its normal work until interrupted by i/o device on completion
of its work. For input, the device interrupts the cpu when new data
has arrived and is ready to be arrived by the system processor .
The actual actions to perform depend on whether the device uses
i/o ports, memory mapping.
For output, the deice delivers an interrupt either when it is ready to
accept new data or to acknowledge asuccessful data transfer.
Memory mapped and DMA- capable device usualy generate
interrupt to tell the system they are done with the buffer . although
interrupt relieves the cpu of having to waite for the device, but it is
still inefficient in data transfer of large amount because the cpu has
to transfer the data word by word between i/o module and memory
. Below are the basic operations of interrupt.
.
28. Interrupt Driven I/O
Basic Operation
•CPU issues read command.
•I/O module gets data from peripheral whilst CPU
does other work.
•I/O module interrupts CPU.
•CPU requests data.
•I/O module transfers data.
29. Types of Interrupts
Hardware Interrupts: If the signal for the processor is from
external device or hardware is called hardware interrupts.
Example: from keyboard we will press the key to do some
action this pressing of key in keyboard will generate a signal
which is given to the processor to do action, such interrupts
are called hardware interrupts. Hardware interrupts can be
classified into two types they are:
•Maskable Interrupt: The hardware interrupts which can be
delayed when a much highest priority interrupt has occurred
to the processor.
•Non Maskable Interrupt: The hardware which cannot be
delayed and should process by the processor immediately.
30. Software Interrupts: Software interrupt can also divided in
:to two types. They are
•Normal Interrupts: the interrupts which are caused by the
software instructions are called software instructions.
•Exception: unplanned interrupts while executing a program
is called Exception. For example: while executing a program
if we got a value which should be divided by zero is called a
exception.
31. Design Issues
How do you identify the module issuing the
interrupt?
How do you deal with multiple interrupts?
i.e. an interrupt handler being interrupted
Identifying Interrupting Module (1)
Different line for each module.
PC
Limits number of devices.
Software poll.
CPU asks each module in turn
Slow
32. Identifying Interrupting Module (2)
•Daisy Chain or Hardware poll
-Interrupt Acknowledge sent down a chain
-Module responsible places vector on bus
-CPU uses vector to identify handler routine
•Bus Master
Module must claim the bus before it can raise
interrupt
e.g. PCI & SCSI
33.
34. Direct Memory Access (DMA)
Direct Memory Access (DMA) means CPU grants I/O module authority to
read from or write to memory without involvement DMA module controls
exchange of data between main memory and the I/O device. Because of
DMA device can transfer data directly to and from memory, rather than
using the CPU as an intermediary, and can thus relieve congestion on the
bus. CPU is only involved at the beginning and end of the transfer and
interrupted only after entire block has been transferred . Direct Memory
Access needs a special hardware called DMA controller (DMAC) that
manages the data transfers and arbitrates access to the system bus. The
controllers are programmed with source and destination pointers (where
to read/write the data), counters to track the number of transferred bytes,
and settings, which includes I/O and memory types, interrupts and states
for the CPU cycles.DMA increases system concurrency by allowing the
CPU to perform tasks while the DMA system transfers data via the system
and memory busses. Hardware design is complicated because the DMA
controller must be integrated into the system, and the system must allow
the DMA controller to be a bus master. Cycle stealing may also be
necessary to allow the CPU and DMA controller to share use of the
memory bus.
35. DMA controller
DMA controller has an address register, data count
register, control logic.
address register :contaains an address that specifies the
memory location of the data to be transferred. The DMA
controller automatically increment the address register after
each word transfere, so the transfere will be from the next
memory location.
data count register:holds the number of words to be transfere
,the word count is decremented by one after each word
transfere .
control logic:specifies the transfere mode ( number of DMA
operation they spport).
36. DMA transfer types:
-Burst mode
the DMA controller keeps control of the bus until all
the data has been transferred to (from ) memory
from (to) the peripheral device. This mode of
transfere is nneeded for fast devices where data
transfere cannot be stopped until the entir transfer
is done .
37. - Single – cycle mode
the DMA controller releasing the bus after each
transfer of one data word . This minimizes the
amount of time that the DMA controller keeps the
CPU from controlling the bus , but it requires that
the bus request / acknowledge sequence be
performed for every single transfer. the Single –
cycle mode is preferred if the peripheral devices
can buffer very large amounts of data , causing
the DMA controller to tie up the bus for an
excessive amount of time.
39. DMA Operation
CPU carries on with other work.
CPU tells DMA controller.
Read/Write.
Device address.
Starting address of memory block for data.
Amount of data to be transferred.
DMA controller deals with transfer.
DMA controller sends interrupt when finished.
40. DMA Configurations (1)
•Single Bus, Detached DMA
controller
•Each transfer uses bus twice
•I/O to DMA then DMA to
memory
•CPU is suspended twice
41. DMA Configurations (2)
•Single Bus, Integrated DMA controller
•Controller may support >1 device
•Each transfer uses bus once
•DMA to memory
•CPU is suspended once
42. DMA Configurations (3)
•Separate I/O Bus
•Bus supports all DMA enabled
devices
•Each transfer uses bus once
•DMA to memory
•CPU is suspended once