Pipelining is an speed up technique where multiple instructions are overlapped in execution on a processor. It is an important topic in Computer Architecture.
This slide try to relate the problem with real life scenario for easily understanding the concept and show the major inner mechanism.
pipelining is the concept of decomposing the sequential process into number of small stages in which each stage execute individual parts of instruction life cycle inside the processor.
There are situations, called hazards, that prevent the next instruction in the instruction stream from executing during its designated cycle
There are three classes of hazards
Structural hazard
Data hazard
Branch hazard
This slide contain the description about the various technique related to parallel Processing(vector Processing and array processor), Arithmetic pipeline, Instruction Pipeline, SIMD processor, Attached array processor
Pipelining is an speed up technique where multiple instructions are overlapped in execution on a processor. It is an important topic in Computer Architecture.
This slide try to relate the problem with real life scenario for easily understanding the concept and show the major inner mechanism.
pipelining is the concept of decomposing the sequential process into number of small stages in which each stage execute individual parts of instruction life cycle inside the processor.
There are situations, called hazards, that prevent the next instruction in the instruction stream from executing during its designated cycle
There are three classes of hazards
Structural hazard
Data hazard
Branch hazard
This slide contain the description about the various technique related to parallel Processing(vector Processing and array processor), Arithmetic pipeline, Instruction Pipeline, SIMD processor, Attached array processor
hardwired control is the system level communication in which how the control signal generate by processor with the help of conditional codes, external output and counter circuits
Memory reference instructions used in computer architecture is well demonstrated with examples. It will probably help you understand each referencing instructions.
About Cache Memory
working of cache memory
levels of cache memory
mapping techniques for cache memory
1. direct mapping techniques
2. Fully associative mapping techniques
3. set associative mapping techniques
Cache memroy organization
cache coherency
every thing in detail
hardwired control is the system level communication in which how the control signal generate by processor with the help of conditional codes, external output and counter circuits
Memory reference instructions used in computer architecture is well demonstrated with examples. It will probably help you understand each referencing instructions.
About Cache Memory
working of cache memory
levels of cache memory
mapping techniques for cache memory
1. direct mapping techniques
2. Fully associative mapping techniques
3. set associative mapping techniques
Cache memroy organization
cache coherency
every thing in detail
Introduction:
RNA interference (RNAi) or Post-Transcriptional Gene Silencing (PTGS) is an important biological process for modulating eukaryotic gene expression.
It is highly conserved process of posttranscriptional gene silencing by which double stranded RNA (dsRNA) causes sequence-specific degradation of mRNA sequences.
dsRNA-induced gene silencing (RNAi) is reported in a wide range of eukaryotes ranging from worms, insects, mammals and plants.
This process mediates resistance to both endogenous parasitic and exogenous pathogenic nucleic acids, and regulates the expression of protein-coding genes.
What are small ncRNAs?
micro RNA (miRNA)
short interfering RNA (siRNA)
Properties of small non-coding RNA:
Involved in silencing mRNA transcripts.
Called “small” because they are usually only about 21-24 nucleotides long.
Synthesized by first cutting up longer precursor sequences (like the 61nt one that Lee discovered).
Silence an mRNA by base pairing with some sequence on the mRNA.
Discovery of siRNA?
The first small RNA:
In 1993 Rosalind Lee (Victor Ambros lab) was studying a non- coding gene in C. elegans, lin-4, that was involved in silencing of another gene, lin-14, at the appropriate time in the
development of the worm C. elegans.
Two small transcripts of lin-4 (22nt and 61nt) were found to be complementary to a sequence in the 3' UTR of lin-14.
Because lin-4 encoded no protein, she deduced that it must be these transcripts that are causing the silencing by RNA-RNA interactions.
Types of RNAi ( non coding RNA)
MiRNA
Length (23-25 nt)
Trans acting
Binds with target MRNA in mismatch
Translation inhibition
Si RNA
Length 21 nt.
Cis acting
Bind with target Mrna in perfect complementary sequence
Piwi-RNA
Length ; 25 to 36 nt.
Expressed in Germ Cells
Regulates trnasposomes activity
MECHANISM OF RNAI:
First the double-stranded RNA teams up with a protein complex named Dicer, which cuts the long RNA into short pieces.
Then another protein complex called RISC (RNA-induced silencing complex) discards one of the two RNA strands.
The RISC-docked, single-stranded RNA then pairs with the homologous mRNA and destroys it.
THE RISC COMPLEX:
RISC is large(>500kD) RNA multi- protein Binding complex which triggers MRNA degradation in response to MRNA
Unwinding of double stranded Si RNA by ATP independent Helicase
Active component of RISC is Ago proteins( ENDONUCLEASE) which cleave target MRNA.
DICER: endonuclease (RNase Family III)
Argonaute: Central Component of the RNA-Induced Silencing Complex (RISC)
One strand of the dsRNA produced by Dicer is retained in the RISC complex in association with Argonaute
ARGONAUTE PROTEIN :
1.PAZ(PIWI/Argonaute/ Zwille)- Recognition of target MRNA
2.PIWI (p-element induced wimpy Testis)- breaks Phosphodiester bond of mRNA.)RNAse H activity.
MiRNA:
The Double-stranded RNAs are naturally produced in eukaryotic cells during development, and they have a key role in regulating gene expression .
Slide 1: Title Slide
Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Slide 2: Introduction to Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Definition: Extrachromosomal inheritance refers to the transmission of genetic material that is not found within the nucleus.
Key Components: Involves genes located in mitochondria, chloroplasts, and plasmids.
Slide 3: Mitochondrial Inheritance
Mitochondria: Organelles responsible for energy production.
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in mitochondria.
Inheritance Pattern: Maternally inherited, meaning it is passed from mothers to all their offspring.
Diseases: Examples include Leber’s hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) and mitochondrial myopathy.
Slide 4: Chloroplast Inheritance
Chloroplasts: Organelles responsible for photosynthesis in plants.
Chloroplast DNA (cpDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in chloroplasts.
Inheritance Pattern: Often maternally inherited in most plants, but can vary in some species.
Examples: Variegation in plants, where leaf color patterns are determined by chloroplast DNA.
Slide 5: Plasmid Inheritance
Plasmids: Small, circular DNA molecules found in bacteria and some eukaryotes.
Features: Can carry antibiotic resistance genes and can be transferred between cells through processes like conjugation.
Significance: Important in biotechnology for gene cloning and genetic engineering.
Slide 6: Mechanisms of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Non-Mendelian Patterns: Do not follow Mendel’s laws of inheritance.
Cytoplasmic Segregation: During cell division, organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts are randomly distributed to daughter cells.
Heteroplasmy: Presence of more than one type of organellar genome within a cell, leading to variation in expression.
Slide 7: Examples of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Four O’clock Plant (Mirabilis jalapa): Shows variegated leaves due to different cpDNA in leaf cells.
Petite Mutants in Yeast: Result from mutations in mitochondrial DNA affecting respiration.
Slide 8: Importance of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Evolution: Provides insight into the evolution of eukaryotic cells.
Medicine: Understanding mitochondrial inheritance helps in diagnosing and treating mitochondrial diseases.
Agriculture: Chloroplast inheritance can be used in plant breeding and genetic modification.
Slide 9: Recent Research and Advances
Gene Editing: Techniques like CRISPR-Cas9 are being used to edit mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA.
Therapies: Development of mitochondrial replacement therapy (MRT) for preventing mitochondrial diseases.
Slide 10: Conclusion
Summary: Extrachromosomal inheritance involves the transmission of genetic material outside the nucleus and plays a crucial role in genetics, medicine, and biotechnology.
Future Directions: Continued research and technological advancements hold promise for new treatments and applications.
Slide 11: Questions and Discussion
Invite Audience: Open the floor for any questions or further discussion on the topic.
Richard's entangled aventures in wonderlandRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
Seminar of U.V. Spectroscopy by SAMIR PANDASAMIR PANDA
Spectroscopy is a branch of science dealing the study of interaction of electromagnetic radiation with matter.
Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy refers to absorption spectroscopy or reflect spectroscopy in the UV-VIS spectral region.
Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy is an analytical method that can measure the amount of light received by the analyte.
Richard's aventures in two entangled wonderlandsRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
What is greenhouse gasses and how many gasses are there to affect the Earth.moosaasad1975
What are greenhouse gasses how they affect the earth and its environment what is the future of the environment and earth how the weather and the climate effects.
Observation of Io’s Resurfacing via Plume Deposition Using Ground-based Adapt...Sérgio Sacani
Since volcanic activity was first discovered on Io from Voyager images in 1979, changes
on Io’s surface have been monitored from both spacecraft and ground-based telescopes.
Here, we present the highest spatial resolution images of Io ever obtained from a groundbased telescope. These images, acquired by the SHARK-VIS instrument on the Large
Binocular Telescope, show evidence of a major resurfacing event on Io’s trailing hemisphere. When compared to the most recent spacecraft images, the SHARK-VIS images
show that a plume deposit from a powerful eruption at Pillan Patera has covered part
of the long-lived Pele plume deposit. Although this type of resurfacing event may be common on Io, few have been detected due to the rarity of spacecraft visits and the previously low spatial resolution available from Earth-based telescopes. The SHARK-VIS instrument ushers in a new era of high resolution imaging of Io’s surface using adaptive
optics at visible wavelengths.
Deep Behavioral Phenotyping in Systems Neuroscience for Functional Atlasing a...Ana Luísa Pinho
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) provides means to characterize brain activations in response to behavior. However, cognitive neuroscience has been limited to group-level effects referring to the performance of specific tasks. To obtain the functional profile of elementary cognitive mechanisms, the combination of brain responses to many tasks is required. Yet, to date, both structural atlases and parcellation-based activations do not fully account for cognitive function and still present several limitations. Further, they do not adapt overall to individual characteristics. In this talk, I will give an account of deep-behavioral phenotyping strategies, namely data-driven methods in large task-fMRI datasets, to optimize functional brain-data collection and improve inference of effects-of-interest related to mental processes. Key to this approach is the employment of fast multi-functional paradigms rich on features that can be well parametrized and, consequently, facilitate the creation of psycho-physiological constructs to be modelled with imaging data. Particular emphasis will be given to music stimuli when studying high-order cognitive mechanisms, due to their ecological nature and quality to enable complex behavior compounded by discrete entities. I will also discuss how deep-behavioral phenotyping and individualized models applied to neuroimaging data can better account for the subject-specific organization of domain-general cognitive systems in the human brain. Finally, the accumulation of functional brain signatures brings the possibility to clarify relationships among tasks and create a univocal link between brain systems and mental functions through: (1) the development of ontologies proposing an organization of cognitive processes; and (2) brain-network taxonomies describing functional specialization. To this end, tools to improve commensurability in cognitive science are necessary, such as public repositories, ontology-based platforms and automated meta-analysis tools. I will thus discuss some brain-atlasing resources currently under development, and their applicability in cognitive as well as clinical neuroscience.
This pdf is about the Schizophrenia.
For more details visit on YouTube; @SELF-EXPLANATORY;
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2. Out line
Definition of pipeline
Advantages and disadvantage
Type of pipeline (h/w) and (s/w)
Latency and throughput
hazards
Pipeline with Addressing mode
Pipeline with cache memory
RISC Computer
3. pipeline
It is technique of decomposing a sequential
process into suboperation, with each
suboperation completed in dedicated
segment that operates concurrently with
all other segments.
Pipeline is commonly known as an assembly
line operation.
4. Example
Each sub operation is to be performed in
a segment within a pipeline. Each
segment has one or two registers and a
combinational circuit.
5. The sub operations in each segment of the
pipeline are as follows:
6.
7.
8. Latency and throughput
Latency
Each instruction takes a certain time to
complete.
latency for that operation is how long does it
take to execute single instruction in the
pipeline.
Throughput
The number of instructions that complete
per second.
9. advantages
1- Pipelining is widely used in modern processors .
2- Quicker time of execution large number of
instruction.
3- More efficient use of processor.
4- Arrange the hardware so that more than one
operation can be performed at the same time.
5- This technique is efficient for applications that need
to repeat the same task in many time with different
set of data.
11. Idea of pipelining in computer
The processor execute the program by
fetching and executing instructions. One after
the other.
Let Fi and Ei refer to the fetch and execute
steps for instruction Ii
12. Use the Idea of Pipelining in a
Computer
F
1
E
1
F
2
E
2
F
3
E
3
I1 I2 I3
(a) Sequential execution
Instruction
fetch
unit
Execution
unit
Interstage buffer
B1
(b) Hardware organization
Time
F1 E1
F2 E2
F3 E3
I1
I2
I3
Instruction
(c) Pipelined execution
Figure 8.1. Basic idea of instruction pipelining.
Clock cycle 1 2 3 4
Time
Fetch + Execution
13. Use the Idea of Pipelining in a
Computer
F4I4
F1
F2
F3
I1
I2
I3
D1
D2
D3
D4
E1
E2
E3
E4
W1
W2
W3
W4
Instruction
Figure 8.2. A 4stage pipeline.
Clock cycle 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
(a) Instruction execution divided into four steps
F : Fetch
instruction
D : Decode
instruction
and fetch
operands
E: Execute
operation
W : Write
results
Interstage buffers
(b) Hardware organization
B1 B2 B3
Time
Fetch + Decode
+ Execution + Write
14. Use the Idea of Pipelining in a
Computer
Computer that has two separate hardware
units, one for fetching and another for
executing them.
This buffer needed to enable the execution
unit while fetch unit fetching the next
instruction.
The computer is controlled by a clock.
15. Role of Cache Memory
Each pipeline stage is expected to complete in one
clock cycle.
The clock period should be long enough to let the
slowest pipeline stage to complete.
Faster stages can only wait for the slowest one to
complete.
Since main memory is very slow compared to the
execution, if each instruction needs to be fetched
from main memory, pipeline is almost useless.[ten
times greater than the time needed to perform
pipeline stage]
Fortunately, we have cache.
16. 1) Software Pipelining
1) Can Handle Complex Instructions.
2) Allows programs to be reused.
2)Hardware Pipelining
1) Help designer manage complexity – a complex
task can be divided into smaller, more
manageable pieces.
2) Hardware pipelining offers higher performance.
Types of pipeline
17. Types of pipeline
Arithmetic Pipeline : Pipeline arithmetic units are
usually found in very high speed computers.
Floating–point operations, multiplication of fixed-
point numbers, and similar computations in scientific
problem.
Instruction Pipeline: Pipeline processing can occur
also in the instruction stream. An instruction pipeline
reads consecutive instructions from memory while
previous instructions are being executed in other
segments.
18. Arithmetic Pipeline
Floating-point adder/subtracter
[1] Compare the exponents
[2] Align the mantissa
[3] Add/sub the mantissa
[4] Normalize the result
X = A x 10a
= 0.9504 x 103
Y = B x 10b
= 0.8200 x 102
1) Compare exponents :
3 - 2 = 1
2) Align mantissas
X = 0.9504 x 103
Y = 0.08200 x 103
3) Add mantissas
Z = 1.0324 x 103
4) Normalize result
Z = 0.10324 x 104
R
Compare
exponents
by subtraction
a b
R
Choose exponent
Exponents
R
A B
Align mantissa
Mantissas
Difference
R
Add or subtract
mantissas
R
Normalize
result
R
R
Adjust
exponent
R
Segment 1:
Segment 2:
Segment 3:
Segment 4:
19. INSTRUCTION CYCLE
Six Phases* in an Instruction Cycle
[1] Fetch an instruction from memory
[2] Decode the instruction
[3] Calculate the effective address of the operand
[4] Fetch the operands from memory
[5] Execute the operation
[6] Store the result in the proper place
* Some instructions skip some phases
* Effective address calculation can be done in the part of the decoding phase
* Storage of the operation result into a register is done automatically in the execution
phase
==> 4-Stage Pipeline
[1] FI: Fetch an instruction from memory
[2] DA: Decode the instruction and calculate the effective address of the operand
[3] FO: Fetch the operand
[4] EX: Execute the operation
20. Execution of Three Instructions in a 4-Stage Pipeline
Conventional
21. Pipeline Performance
The potential increase in performance resulting from pipelining is
proportional to the number of pipeline stages.
However, this increase would be achieved only if all pipeline stages
require the same time to complete, and there is no interruption
throughout program execution.
Unfortunately, this is not true.
Floating point may involve many clock cycle
Stalling involves halting the flow of instructions until the required
result is ready to be used. However stalling wastes processor time
by doing nothing while waiting for the result.
Pipeline stall causes degradation in pipeline
performance.
22. Pipeline Performance
Any condition that causes a pipeline to stall is called
a hazard.
Data hazard – when an instruction depend on the result of a
previous instruction, but this result is not yet available.
Instruction (control) hazard – a delay in the availability of
an instruction causes the pipeline to stall for example branch.
Structural hazard – the situation when two instructions
require the use of a given hardware resource at the same time.
23. Data Hazards
We must ensure that the results obtained when instructions are
executed in a pipelined processor are identical to those obtained
when the same instructions are executed sequentially.
Hazard occurs
A ← 3 + A
B ← 4 × A
No hazard
A ← 5 × C
B ← 20 + C
When two operations depend on each other, they must be
executed sequentially in the correct order.
Another example:
Mul R2, R3, R4
Add R5, R4, R6
25. Data dependency solutions
Hardware interlocks: is a circuit that detects instructions whose
source operands are destinations of instructions
Farther up in the pipeline.
Operand forwarding : uses special h/w to detect a conflict and
then avoid it by routing the data through special paths between
pipeline segments .
delayed load :the compiler for such computers is designed to
detect a data conflict and reorder the instructions as necessary to
delay the loading of the Conflicting data by inserting no –operation
instructions. Example
I1: Mul R2, R3, R4
NOP
NOP
I2: Add R5, R4, R6
26. Instruction Hazards
One of the major problems in operating an instruction
pipeline is the occurrence of branch instructions.
1- Unconditional branch always change the sequential
program flow by loading the program counter with the
target address.
2- Conditional branch the control selects the target
instruction if the condition is satisfied or the next
sequential instruction if the condition is not satisfied.
28. Unconditional Branches
The time lost as a result of a branch
instruction is referred to as the branch
penalty.
The previous example instruction I3 is
wrongly fetched and branch target address k
will discard the i3.
Typically the Fetch unit has dedicated h/w
which will identify the branch target address
as quick as possible after an instruction is
fetched.
29. Instruction Queue and Prefetching
branch instruction stalls the pipeline.
Many processor employs dedicated fetch unit
which will fetch the instruction and put them
into a queue.
It can store several instruction at a time.
A separate unit called dispatch unit, takes
instructions from the front of the queue and
send them to the execution unit.
31. 2- Conditional Braches
A conditional branch instruction introduces
the added hazard caused by the dependency
of the branch condition on the result of a
previous instruction.
The decision to branch cannot be made until
the execution of that instruction has been
completed.
32. Delayed Branch
Add
LOOP Shift_left R1
Decrement
Branch=0
R2
LOOP
NEXT
(a) Original program loop
LOOP Decrement R2
Branch=0
Shift_left
LOOP
R1
NEXT
(b) Reordered instructions
Figure 8.12. Reordering of instructions for a delayed branch.
Add
R1,R3
R1,R3
33. Addressing Modes
Addressing modes include simple ones and
complex ones.
In choosing the addressing modes to be
implemented in a pipelined processor, we
must consider the effect of each addressing
mode on instruction flow in the pipeline:
Side effects
The extent to which complex addressing modes cause
the pipeline to stall
Whether a given mode is likely to be used by compilers
34. Addressing Modes
In a pipelined processor, complex addressing
modes do not necessarily lead to faster execution.
Advantage: reducing the number of instructions /
program space
Disadvantage: cause pipeline to stall / more
hardware to decode / not convenient for compiler to
work with
Conclusion: complex addressing modes are not
suitable for pipelined execution.
35. Addressing Modes
Good addressing modes should have:
Access to an operand does not require more than one
access to the memory
Only load and store instruction access memory operands
The addressing modes used do not have side effects
Register, register indirect, index
36. RISC pipeline
• RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computer)
• 1- To use an efficient instruction pipeline
• a) to implement an instruction pipeline using a small number of
• suboperations, with each begin executed in one cycle.
• b) because the fixed length instruction format , the decoding of
the
• operation can occur at the same time as register selection.
• 2- Data transfer instruction in RISC are limited to load and store
• instruction.by using cache memory.
• 3-One of major advantage of RISC is ability to execute instruction
• at the rate of one per clock cycle that can achieve pipeline
• segments requiring just one clock cycle.
• 4- The compiler supported that translates the high-level language
• program into machine language program.
• .
37. RISC pipeline
Instruction Cycle of Three-Stage Instruction Pipeline.
I: Instruction Fetch from program memory
A: Decode, Read Registers, ALU Operation
E: Transfer the output of ALU to a register, Transfer EA to a data
memory for loading or storing , Transfer branch address to the
program counter.
Types of instructions
- 1- Data Manipulation Instructions
- 2- Load and Store Instructions
- 3- Program Control Instructions