Ch 19 ppt
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The document summarizes different features of the seafloor geography. It describes the continental shelf, continental slope, abyssal plains, seamounts, mid-ocean ridges, subduction zones, and resources found in different areas of the seafloor. It also discusses life in the oceans including producers, consumers, food chains, reproduction, plankton, nekton, benthos, beach habitats, estuaries, coral reefs, and pollution sources affecting the oceans.
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This document summarizes aquatic biodiversity and ecosystems. It discusses the different zones in oceans and freshwater, including the types of organisms found in each zone. Key points include:
- 71% of the planet is ocean, consisting of the Pacific, Atlantic, Arctic, and Indian oceans.
- Aquatic ecosystems are divided into marine (saltwater) and freshwater areas, each with their own characteristic zones and organisms.
- Major zones are the photic top layer with most light and primary production, a middle layer with some light, and an aphotic bottom layer with little light.
- Important organism types include plankton, nekton, benthos, and decomposers, each living in
Marine ecology
The document discusses the marine ecosystem and its various components. It describes the pelagic and benthic divisions of the marine environment. The pelagic division includes the neritic and oceanic zones, while the benthic division encompasses the littoral and deep-sea systems. It also discusses the five major kingdoms found in the ocean - Monera, Protista, Fungi, Metaphyta and Metazoa. Additionally, it examines the key components of the marine ecosystem including plankton organisms, zooplankton, nekton community, benthos organisms, coral reefs and mangrove swamps. Finally, it outlines some problems facing marine ecosystems such as natural and
Sea floorslideshow
The document discusses features of the ocean floor and sedimentation processes. It describes key features such as continental shelves, slopes, trenches, and ridges. It explains how sediment is formed from eroded land sources, marine organisms, and chemical precipitation. Sediment is sorted by size and composition and transported by currents to form deposits in neritic coastal and pelagic deep sea areas. Biogenous and lithogenous sediments accumulate at different rates and are influenced by ocean chemistry and depths. Sampling tools and underwater robots are used to study the ocean floor.
Marine pollution
Marine pollution comes from various land-based and sea-based sources and can take many forms. The main types of pollution discussed are oil, eutrophication, metals, halogenated hydrocarbons, thermal, radioactive, and litter/plastics. Oil pollution primarily comes from tanker accidents and operations while eutrophication results from nutrient runoff from agriculture and sewage. Metals and chemicals can accumulate in organisms and biomagnify up the food chain. Thermal and radioactive pollution impact ecosystems through temperature changes and radioactivity. Litter, especially plastics, injures and kills marine life and enters the food web. Reducing inputs and treating wastes are important to solving marine pollution.
Estuarine systems
The Estuarine System consists of deepwater tidal habitats and adjacent tidal wetlands that are usually semienclosed by land but have open, partly obstructed, or sporadic access to the open ocean, and in which ocean water is at least occasionally diluted by freshwater runoff from the land. The salinity may be periodically increased above that of the open ocean by evaporation. Along some low-energy coastlines there is appreciable dilution of sea water. Offshore areas with typical estuarine plants and animals, such as red mangroves (Rhizophora mangle) and eastern oysters (Crassostrea virginica), are also included in the Estuarine System.
Chapter 8 Oceanography
The document provides an overview of oceanography, including sections on the seafloor, life in the oceans, and ocean pollution. It describes various features of the seafloor such as the continental shelf, slope, and ridges. It also discusses different types of life in the oceans including plankton, nekton, benthos, and the processes of photosynthesis, chemosynthesis, and food chains.
Marine ecosystems
This document describes several types of marine ecosystems: estuaries, salt marshes, mangrove swamps, rocky shores, sandy shores, barrier islands, and coral reefs. Estuaries are transition areas where fresh water from rivers mixes with salt water from the ocean, creating very nutrient-rich environments that support a high diversity of plants like eelgrass and cordgrass, and animals including blue crabs, fish, birds, and mammals. Coral reefs are structures built by corals in warm, sunlit, shallow ocean waters that provide habitat for numerous species.
Freshwater ecosystems
Freshwater ecosystems include streams, rivers, ponds, lakes, and wetlands. Streams join to form larger rivers. Ponds and lakes have three zones - a littoral zone near shore with plants, an open-water zone where sunlight reaches, and a deep-water zone without sunlight. Wetlands soak up flood waters and replenish groundwater. They include marshes with grasses and swamps with trees. Over time, a lake can fill in with sediment and transform into a forest. The ocean contains diverse ecosystems shaped by temperature, depth, and sunlight. It has zones like intertidal, neritic, oceanic, and benthic that support different life.
Ecology Chapter 25: AQUATIC ENVIRONMENT
The document discusses various aquatic ecosystems including lakes, rivers, estuaries, and oceans. It describes the key physical characteristics and biological adaptations that allow organisms to thrive in different aquatic environments. Lakes can be formed through geological or non-geological processes. Aquatic life is richest in shallow waters near shorelines. Rivers flow into seas forming estuaries with mixing of freshwater and saltwater. Oceans have vast benthic communities on the seafloor and unique hydrothermal vent and coral reef ecosystems. Primary productivity in aquatic environments is governed by light and nutrient availability.
Coral reefs theory, types, formation
Coral reefs are built from the limestone skeletons of stony corals and cover around 100,000 square miles globally. They are located in shallow, tropical waters and grow gradually as coral polyps multiply and their skeletons accumulate. There are three main types of reefs - fringing reefs adjacent to land, barrier reefs separated from land by lagoons, and atolls which are ring-shaped reefs surrounding a central lagoon. Reefs support tremendous biodiversity but are threatened by human impacts like pollution, coastal development, overfishing, and climate change which can cause coral bleaching or increase ocean acidification.
Fresh water and marine ecosystems
This document summarizes freshwater and marine ecosystems. It discusses the key features and threats to various ecosystems, including lakes/ponds, wetlands, rivers, estuaries, coral reefs, the ocean, and polar regions. The main types of freshwater ecosystems described are lakes/ponds, which have littoral, open water, and benthic zones, and wetlands like marshes and swamps. Threats to these ecosystems include pollution from industry, agriculture, and development. Marine ecosystems discussed include estuaries where fresh and saltwater mix, coral reefs built by polyps in warm tropical seas, the ocean with its depths lacking light, and polar regions relying on phytoplankton
Ecology 3
The document discusses key concepts in ecology, including the components and interrelationships within ecosystems. It describes the abiotic factors that influence ecosystems, such as climate and water cycles, and how energy and nutrients flow between biotic and abiotic components. It also outlines several major biomes and aquatic ecosystems, examining the characteristic environmental conditions and common organism inhabiting each.
The coral reef!
Coral reefs are shallow ocean habitats formed by coral polyps that provide shelter and support high biodiversity. They have the highest biodiversity of any ecosystem, with over 2,000 species of marine life. Key organisms include coral, which the reefs are built upon, as well as sharks, sea anemones, and damselfish. However, coral reefs are threatened by climate change, pollution, and mining that damages the delicate ecosystems.
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Chapter25
Ancient cultures used mythology and everyday objects to name constellations, and modern astronomy recognizes 88 constellations. Some constellations are only visible part of the year as the Earth revolves around the Sun, but circumpolar constellations in the northern sky appear to circle around Polaris and can be seen all year. Astronomers measure stars' absolute and apparent magnitudes, parallax, distance in light-years, and determine temperature based on color, with hotter stars appearing blue-white and cooler stars orange or red.
Comets, asteroids, meteors
Comets are made of dust, rock and frozen gases that vaporize as they near the Sun, forming a coma and tail. Comets eventually break apart after passing by the Sun multiple times. Small pieces of comets are called meteoroids, which appear as meteors or "shooting stars" when burning up in Earth's atmosphere, or meteorites if they reach the ground. Asteroids are rocky bodies like planets that mainly orbit in a belt between Mars and Jupiter.
Chapter 24
The document provides an overview of the solar system, including its origin and components. It discusses:
1) The modern view that the solar system formed from a rotating cloud of gas and dust that condensed to form the Sun and planets as it contracted.
2) The inner planets Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars, including characteristics such as temperatures, atmospheres, and evidence of past water on Mars.
3) The outer planets Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune, noting their large sizes and gaseous compositions. Moons and rings are also mentioned.
Ch 23
The document summarizes key properties and motions of Earth and the Moon. It describes how Earth rotates on its axis, causing day and night, and revolves around the Sun, causing years. It also explains that the Moon rotates on its axis and revolves around Earth, and that the changing angles of sunlight cause its phases to cycle over 29.5 days.
Ch 23
Earth rotates on its axis, causing day and night. It also revolves around the sun in an elliptical orbit, causing seasons due to its tilt. The tilt causes different angles of sunlight between the hemispheres throughout the year. The moon rotates at the same rate as it revolves around Earth, always keeping the same face visible. The moon has different phases as it orbits Earth due to the varying amounts of illumination visible from Earth. Eclipses occur when Earth or the moon block sunlight from the other.
Ch 22 2
The document provides an overview of exploring space through electromagnetic radiation and different forms of telescopes, satellites, space probes, and missions. It discusses Edwin Hubble discovering the expanding universe, the Hubble Space Telescope, early space missions using rockets, satellites orbiting Earth today for communication and weather, space probes like Voyager capturing images of planets, the first American and Soviet astronauts, Apollo missions landing on the Moon, space stations like Mir and the International Space Station, and past and future Mars missions including the Cassini probe to Saturn.
Chapter 22
The document discusses exploring space through electromagnetic waves and telescopes on Earth and in space. It covers early space missions including Sputnik and missions to study planets. Current and future space missions are exploring Mars and building space stations for long term living in space through international cooperation.
Chapter 18 section iii
Ocean waves are formed by wind blowing over water, with wavelength being the horizontal distance between wave crests and wave height being the vertical distance between crest and trough. Breakers occur when the top of a wave moves faster than the bottom, causing it to collapse. Tides are large gravitational waves caused by the moon and sun, with high tide occurring when the tidal crest reaches shore and low tide when the trough arrives, and tidal range referring to the difference between high and low tide levels. Tidal bores can form when a rising tide enters a narrow river from a wider sea area.
Climate good one
1. A climate is determined by averaging temperature, precipitation, and other factors over many years and influences the types of plants and animals and how people live in a particular area.
2. Latitude, proximity to large bodies of water, ocean currents, mountains, and urban environments impact local climates by affecting temperatures and precipitation patterns.
3. Climate changes over short term seasons and long term periods due to factors like the Earth's orientation to the Sun, volcanic eruptions, and human activities like burning fossil fuels.
Ch 16 weather
Weather refers to the current state of the atmosphere regarding elements like temperature, wind, and moisture. Various factors influence weather, including the sun heating the air and evaporating water from surfaces, which forms clouds and can lead to precipitation when the water condenses. Weather patterns result from the movement of air masses with different properties interacting, such as cold fronts where colder air advances under warmer air. Meteorologists study weather to make forecasts by analyzing weather maps, temperature and pressure readings, and storm conditions.
Atmosphere 15
The document summarizes key aspects of Earth's atmosphere. It describes the early atmosphere and how it has changed over time with the introduction of oxygen and the ozone layer. It then discusses the composition of the modern atmosphere and layers, including the troposphere where humans live and the protective ozone layer in the stratosphere. It also addresses how atmospheric gases transfer heat energy via radiation, conduction and convection, and how wind patterns are formed.
Geologic time chapter 14
The document summarizes major periods in geologic time from the Precambrian era to present day. It describes how trilobites and other early life evolved and adapted to changing environments over millions of years. Major events included the formation of Pangaea during the Paleozoic era and mass extinctions at the boundaries of the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras. During the Mesozoic, dinosaurs and early mammals appeared while flowering plants evolved in the Cretaceous period. The Cenozoic era saw continued evolution of mammals, mountain building, and the emergence of humans.
Chapter 13
Paleontologists study fossils to reconstruct prehistoric organisms. Fossils form if organisms are quickly buried, with those having hard parts more likely to fossilize. Different types of fossils provide evidence of ancient life, including permineralized remains, carbon films, molds, and casts. Trace fossils provide evidence of organism activities through tracks, burrows, and other traces. Index fossils are abundant fossils that existed for short periods and can be used to correlate rock layers. Examining undisturbed rock layers using the principle of superposition reveals their relative ages, while radiometric dating provides absolute ages in years.
Chapter 12 Volcanoes
Volcanoes form at boundaries where tectonic plates meet, such as at divergent boundaries like the Mid-Atlantic Ridge or at convergent boundaries. The type of eruption depends on the composition of the magma and amount of gases; basaltic magma produces quiet eruptions while magma rich in silica or water causes explosive eruptions. The resulting volcano shape is also influenced by the eruption - shield volcanoes form from fluid basalt lava, cinder cones from tephra ejected in explosions, and composite volcanoes feature layers from both eruption types.
Chapter 11 Earthquakes
Earthquakes occur when rocks break along faults due to forces inside the Earth. This causes the rocks on one side of the fault to move relative to the other side. There are three main types of faults - normal, reverse, and strike-slip - which are caused by different forces. Earthquakes generate seismic waves that move the ground in various directions. Seismographs are used to measure these waves and determine details about the earthquake location and epicenter. The structure of the Earth consists of layers with different densities that seismic waves pass through. While earthquakes are natural, they can cause significant damage, so preparation and building design can help reduce risks to human life and infrastructure.
Chapter 10 ii
1) Scientists discovered underwater mountain ranges called mid-ocean ridges using sound waves, and Harry Hess proposed the theory of seafloor spreading to explain them.
2) Seafloor spreading involves hot material rising at ridges and flowing sideways, carrying the seafloor away as new material cools and forms at the cracks.
3) Evidence for seafloor spreading includes younger rocks at ridges and magnetic reversals recorded in strips of rock parallel to ridges.
Chapter 10 ii
The document summarizes key aspects of plate tectonics theory including:
1) Continents were once joined together in a supercontinent called Pangaea before drifting apart to their current locations, as evidenced by matching coastlines and fossil/rock formations.
2) Seafloor spreading was discovered at mid-ocean ridges and explained how new crust is formed through magma rising at these ridges and pushing plates apart over time.
3) Earth's crust is broken into plates that move atop the mantle, interacting at plate boundaries through spreading, subduction, and transformation, causing volcanic and seismic activity.
Erosional forces
Erosion is the wearing away and movement of surface materials by forces like water, wind, or glaciers. There are several types of erosion including plucking by glaciers, which picks up debris, and abrasion, where wind acts like a sandblaster wearing down rocks. Wind erosion can scatter dust over large areas through deflation and form sand dunes or dust storms in dry, unvegetated regions. Glaciers are powerful erosion agents that can carve U-shaped valleys and leave behind deposits like moraines, eskers, and till when they melt. Erosion shapes the Earth's surface over time.
Erosional forces
Erosion is the wearing away and movement of surface materials by forces like water, wind, or glaciers. There are several types of erosion including plucking by glaciers, which picks up debris, and abrasion, where wind acts like a sandblaster wearing down rocks. Wind erosion can scatter dust over large areas through deflation and form sand dunes or dust storms in dry, unvegetated regions. Glaciers are powerful erosion agents that can carve U-shaped valleys and leave behind deposits like moraines, eskers, and till when they melt. Erosion shapes the Earth's surface over time.
Section ii and iii
Soil formation is a long process influenced by climate, rock type, vegetation, and time. Soil is composed of mineral particles, organic matter, air, and water. It has distinct layers called horizons that differ in composition and depth of organic matter and minerals. Soil type depends on climate, parent rock material, vegetation, and time for development, with some soils taking thousands of years to form.
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Syllabus
Chapter-1
Introduction to objective, scope and outcome the subject
Chapter 2
Introduction: Scope and Specialization of Civil Engineering, Role of civil Engineer in Society, Impact of infrastructural development on economy of country.
Chapter 3
Surveying: Object Principles & Types of Surveying; Site Plans, Plans & Maps; Scales & Unit of different Measurements.
Linear Measurements: Instruments used. Linear Measurement by Tape, Ranging out Survey Lines and overcoming Obstructions; Measurements on sloping ground; Tape corrections, conventional symbols. Angular Measurements: Instruments used; Introduction to Compass Surveying, Bearings and Longitude & Latitude of a Line, Introduction to total station.
Levelling: Instrument used Object of levelling, Methods of levelling in brief, and Contour maps.
Chapter 4
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Chapter 5
Transportation: Introduction to Transportation Engineering; Traffic and Road Safety: Types and Characteristics of Various Modes of Transportation; Various Road Traffic Signs, Causes of Accidents and Road Safety Measures.
Chapter 6
Environmental Engineering: Environmental Pollution, Environmental Acts and Regulations, Functional Concepts of Ecology, Basics of Species, Biodiversity, Ecosystem, Hydrological Cycle; Chemical Cycles: Carbon, Nitrogen & Phosphorus; Energy Flow in Ecosystems.
Water Pollution: Water Quality standards, Introduction to Treatment & Disposal of Waste Water. Reuse and Saving of Water, Rain Water Harvesting. Solid Waste Management: Classification of Solid Waste, Collection, Transportation and Disposal of Solid. Recycling of Solid Waste: Energy Recovery, Sanitary Landfill, On-Site Sanitation. Air & Noise Pollution: Primary and Secondary air pollutants, Harmful effects of Air Pollution, Control of Air Pollution. . Noise Pollution Harmful Effects of noise pollution, control of noise pollution, Global warming & Climate Change, Ozone depletion, Greenhouse effect
Text Books:
1. Palancharmy, Basic Civil Engineering, McGraw Hill publishers.
2. Satheesh Gopi, Basic Civil Engineering, Pearson Publishers.
3. Ketki Rangwala Dalal, Essentials of Civil Engineering, Charotar Publishing House.
4. BCP, Surveying volume 1
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- 2. The Seafloor Section 1
- 11. Section 2 Life in the Ocean
- 29. Section 3 Ocean Pollution