H
OH
H
OH
H
OH
H
OH
H
CH2OH
CH2OH
CH2OH
D-glucose
D-mannose
D-galactose
1. The document discusses carbohydrate chemistry and classification. It explains that carbohydrates are named using Greek roots, and provides examples of monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides.
2. Chirality and stereoisomers are important concepts in carbohydrate chemistry. Monosaccharides can have D and L forms that are non-superimposable mirror images.
3. Carbo
Galactosemia is a condition where the body cannot break down the sugar galactose found in milk. Symptoms include jaundice, vomiting, poor weight gain, irritability, and seizures. The treatment is removing all foods containing galactose from the diet through avoiding milk and milk products. There is no cure, but following a strict lactose-free diet can control the condition.
Chemistry of carbohydrates disaccharidesRavi Kiran
This document discusses various disaccharides. It describes the structures and properties of sucrose, lactose, maltose, and isomaltose. Sucrose is a non-reducing disaccharide of glucose and fructose linked by an alpha-1,2 glycosidic bond. Lactose is a reducing disaccharide found in milk consisting of glucose and galactose linked by a beta-1,4 bond. Maltose contains two glucose units linked by an alpha-1,4 bond, while isomaltose contains two glucose units linked by an alpha-1,6 bond. The document also provides details on the hydrolysis and properties of each disaccharide.
This document summarizes the digestion and absorption of carbohydrates. It discusses that carbohydrates are broken down into monosaccharides in the mouth by salivary amylase, pass undigested through the stomach, and are further broken down in the small intestine by pancreatic amylase and intestinal disaccharidases into absorbable monosaccharides like glucose, fructose and galactose. These monosaccharides are then absorbed into the bloodstream through active transport using sodium-glucose transporters or facilitated diffusion using glucose transporters. Lactose intolerance results if the enzyme lactase is deficient and lactose cannot be fully digested.
• The compounds possessing identical
molecular formula but different structures are
called isomers.
Various types of isomerism
1. Structural isomerism
2. Stereoisomerism
Stereoisomerism
• Same molecular formula and same structure
but they differ in configuration.
• That is arrangement of their atoms in space.
• Presence of asymmetric carbon atoms allow
the formation of stereoisomerism
Carbohydrates are the most abundant biomolecules on Earth. They function as organic matter, energy stores, structural components, and in industries. Carbohydrates are classified as monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, or polysaccharides. Monosaccharides include aldoses and ketoses ranging from trioses to heptoses. Fischer and Haworth projections are used to represent monosaccharide structures. Oligosaccharides contain 2-10 monosaccharide units and include disaccharides like sucrose, maltose, lactose, and trehalose. Polysaccharides are polymers of monosaccharides that can be classified as storage polysaccharides like starch and glycogen or structural polysaccharides.
1. The document discusses absorption in the small intestine, where nutrients are broken down into smaller molecules that can be absorbed.
2. Carbohydrates are broken into monosaccharides like glucose, proteins into amino acids, and fats into fatty acids and glycerol.
3. These soluble substances are then absorbed into the epithelial cells of the small intestine through processes like facilitated diffusion, active transport, and micelle transport, before entering the bloodstream or lymphatic system.
- Carbohydrates provide energy and are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Glucose is a primary carbohydrate that our bodies use for energy.
- Carbohydrates exist as monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides like glucose cannot be broken down further. Disaccharides contain two monosaccharide units joined by a glycosidic bond. Polysaccharides contain long chains of monosaccharide units.
- Examples of monosaccharides are glucose, fructose, and galactose. Disaccharides include sucrose, lactose, and maltose. Starch, glycogen, and cellulose are examples of polysaccharides that provide energy storage or structural support
Galactosemia is a condition where the body cannot break down the sugar galactose found in milk. Symptoms include jaundice, vomiting, poor weight gain, irritability, and seizures. The treatment is removing all foods containing galactose from the diet through avoiding milk and milk products. There is no cure, but following a strict lactose-free diet can control the condition.
Chemistry of carbohydrates disaccharidesRavi Kiran
This document discusses various disaccharides. It describes the structures and properties of sucrose, lactose, maltose, and isomaltose. Sucrose is a non-reducing disaccharide of glucose and fructose linked by an alpha-1,2 glycosidic bond. Lactose is a reducing disaccharide found in milk consisting of glucose and galactose linked by a beta-1,4 bond. Maltose contains two glucose units linked by an alpha-1,4 bond, while isomaltose contains two glucose units linked by an alpha-1,6 bond. The document also provides details on the hydrolysis and properties of each disaccharide.
This document summarizes the digestion and absorption of carbohydrates. It discusses that carbohydrates are broken down into monosaccharides in the mouth by salivary amylase, pass undigested through the stomach, and are further broken down in the small intestine by pancreatic amylase and intestinal disaccharidases into absorbable monosaccharides like glucose, fructose and galactose. These monosaccharides are then absorbed into the bloodstream through active transport using sodium-glucose transporters or facilitated diffusion using glucose transporters. Lactose intolerance results if the enzyme lactase is deficient and lactose cannot be fully digested.
• The compounds possessing identical
molecular formula but different structures are
called isomers.
Various types of isomerism
1. Structural isomerism
2. Stereoisomerism
Stereoisomerism
• Same molecular formula and same structure
but they differ in configuration.
• That is arrangement of their atoms in space.
• Presence of asymmetric carbon atoms allow
the formation of stereoisomerism
Carbohydrates are the most abundant biomolecules on Earth. They function as organic matter, energy stores, structural components, and in industries. Carbohydrates are classified as monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, or polysaccharides. Monosaccharides include aldoses and ketoses ranging from trioses to heptoses. Fischer and Haworth projections are used to represent monosaccharide structures. Oligosaccharides contain 2-10 monosaccharide units and include disaccharides like sucrose, maltose, lactose, and trehalose. Polysaccharides are polymers of monosaccharides that can be classified as storage polysaccharides like starch and glycogen or structural polysaccharides.
1. The document discusses absorption in the small intestine, where nutrients are broken down into smaller molecules that can be absorbed.
2. Carbohydrates are broken into monosaccharides like glucose, proteins into amino acids, and fats into fatty acids and glycerol.
3. These soluble substances are then absorbed into the epithelial cells of the small intestine through processes like facilitated diffusion, active transport, and micelle transport, before entering the bloodstream or lymphatic system.
- Carbohydrates provide energy and are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Glucose is a primary carbohydrate that our bodies use for energy.
- Carbohydrates exist as monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides like glucose cannot be broken down further. Disaccharides contain two monosaccharide units joined by a glycosidic bond. Polysaccharides contain long chains of monosaccharide units.
- Examples of monosaccharides are glucose, fructose, and galactose. Disaccharides include sucrose, lactose, and maltose. Starch, glycogen, and cellulose are examples of polysaccharides that provide energy storage or structural support
- Plants convert 100 metric tons of CO2 into carbohydrates each year through photosynthesis.
- Carbohydrates are the most abundant organic molecules and serve important functions like energy storage, structure, and encoding biologic information through oligosaccharide chains.
- Monosaccharides can exist as cyclic or linear structures and take on different configurations that impact their chemical and physical properties. Common techniques like mutarotation, osazone formation, and oxidation reactions are used to characterize carbohydrates.
This slide will help you to understand about chemical reactions of monosaccharides and Disaccharides. The carbohydrate can can undergo several reactions like oxidation, reduction, esterification, dehydration and tautomerization to give various products.
Carbohydrates are polyhydroxy compounds that contain a carbonyl group and are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. The three main types are monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides like glucose and fructose exist as both open-chain and ring forms, with the ring forms being more stable. Carbohydrates undergo reactions like isomerization, oxidation, reduction, and acetal formation involving their carbonyl groups. They can exist in several isomeric forms differing in stereoconfiguration and anomeric form.
Digestion and Absorption of biomolecules.pptxYubrajBhatta1
This document summarizes the digestion and absorption of carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids. It describes how each macronutrient is broken down by enzymes into smaller molecules in the mouth, stomach, and small intestine. Carbohydrates are digested into monosaccharides like glucose, proteins into di- and tri-peptides, and lipids into fatty acids and monoacylglycerols. These smaller molecules are then absorbed across the intestinal epithelium and transported to cells for energy or building new molecules. Bile salts play an important role in emulsifying lipids to facilitate their digestion and absorption as mixed micelles.
- Digestion breaks down carbohydrates, proteins, and fats into smaller molecules so they can be absorbed in the small intestine. Carbohydrates are broken into monosaccharides, proteins into dipeptides/tripeptides/amino acids, and fats into fatty acids and monoglycerides.
- Absorption occurs mainly in the small intestine through active transport, facilitated diffusion, and osmosis. Nutrients pass from the intestinal lumen into enterocytes and cross the basolateral membrane into blood. The villi and microvilli increase absorptive surface area.
- Unabsorbed materials pass to the large intestine where further water and electrolyte absorption occurs before elimination as feces
This document discusses carbohydrate chemistry. It defines carbohydrates as organic molecules found in nature that are made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Carbohydrates are classified based on their structure into monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides include important hexoses like glucose and fructose. Carbohydrates exhibit properties like optical activity and stereoisomerism due to asymmetric carbon atoms. Key topics covered include glycosidic linkages, reducing sugars, ring structure forms (pyranose and furanose), and epimers. Physiologically important monosaccharides and derived sugars are also mentioned.
This document discusses carbohydrate structure and isomerism. It describes the different structural representations of monosaccharides including Fischer projections, Haworth projections, and chair/boat conformations. It also defines different types of isomerism including structural isomerism, stereoisomerism, enantiomers, epimers, anomers, and mutarotation. Disaccharides and polysaccharides are formed by condensation reactions and can be reducing or non-reducing depending on whether the glycosidic linkage involves one or both carbonyl groups. Common examples of oligo- and polysaccharides are also provided.
Carbohydrates are digested in the mouth by salivary amylase and in the small intestine by pancreatic amylase and intestinal enzymes. These enzymes break down starches and sugars into monosaccharides like glucose, galactose and fructose, which are then absorbed into the bloodstream. Some common disorders of carbohydrate digestion include lactose intolerance, due to a deficiency of lactase, and sucrase deficiency, due to a lack of the enzyme sucrase. These disorders can cause abdominal symptoms like cramps and diarrhea.
Carbohydrates are the most abundant biomolecules on Earth and serve important functions in living organisms. They include monosaccharides like glucose and fructose, oligosaccharides like sucrose and lactose, and polysaccharides like starch, cellulose, and glycogen. Monosaccharides are either aldoses or ketoses and commonly exist as cyclic structures with α and β anomers. Glycosidic bonds link monosaccharides into oligosaccharides and polysaccharides, which serve structural roles like cellulose and chitin or storage roles like starch and glycogen. Carbohydrates play key roles through their diverse structures and functions.
This document discusses disaccharides, which are formed through a condensation reaction between two monosaccharides that results in the removal of a water molecule. It classifies the main disaccharides - sucrose, lactose, and maltose. Sucrose is formed from glucose and fructose and is non-reducing. Lactose is formed from glucose and galactose and is reducing. Maltose is formed from two glucose molecules and is also reducing. The document provides the structures and functions of these three disaccharides.
Glycogenolysis is the breakdown of glycogen into glucose-1-phosphate. It occurs in three steps:
1) Phosphorolysis by glycogen phosphorylase cleaves α-1,4 glycosidic linkages, producing glucose-1-phosphate until four glucose residues remain.
2) A debranching enzyme removes these four residue branches through two activities, producing linear chains of glucose residues.
3) Phosphoglucomutase converts glucose-1-phosphate to glucose-6-phosphate, which can then enter glycolysis to produce energy or be released as free glucose from the liver. Glycogenolysis is regulated by allosteric effectors, hormones like glucagon and
Oligosaccharides are sugar molecules made of 2-10 monosaccharide units. They are less sweet and less soluble than monosaccharides. Oligosaccharides are classified based on the number of monosaccharide units and include disaccharides with 2 units, trisaccharides with 3 units, and tetrasaccharides and pentasaccharides with 4 and 5 units respectively. Oligosaccharides are not digested by humans but are consumed by intestinal bacteria, which is important as it helps the growth of microflora, reduces pathogens, prevents constipation, and provides other health benefits.
This document discusses the nomenclature and classification of carbohydrates. It defines monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. It describes the structural features of common monosaccharides like glucose, galactose, and mannose. It also discusses stereoisomers, anomers, mutarotation, and the reactions of monosaccharides like reduction, oxidation, ester formation, and glycoside formation. Important carbohydrate derivatives like amino sugars are also introduced.
Polysaccharide introduction, example, structure, starch, cellulose, chitin those structure and important functions and their presence in plants and animals, polysaccharide types based on functions and their composition , functions of polysaccharides , important images for relevant polysaccharides types, polysaccharide role in plants and animal cells. Starch - structure and functions, cellulose structure and functions, chitin - structure and functions
1) Fructose is absorbed in the small intestine and metabolized separately in the liver and muscle.
2) In the liver, fructose is converted to fructose-1-phosphate then glyceraldehyde and dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP) which can enter glycolysis or gluconeogenesis.
3) Excess fructose intake can lead to hyperlipidemia as the liver converts fructose to triglycerides and glycoproteins.
Carbohydrates are made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They exist as monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides can be aldoses or ketoses and exist as cyclic structures in solution. Disaccharides like sucrose are formed through glycosidic bond formation between two monosaccharides. Polysaccharides vary in composition and function, with starch and glycogen serving as energy storage and cellulose providing structural support. Glycoconjugates are carbohydrates bound to proteins or lipids that play important roles in cell signaling and recognition.
Introduction and defination
Classification
Reducing sugars
Non-reducing sugars
General properties
Common disaccharides
1) sucrose
Origin
Structure
Properties
Function
This document summarizes key aspects of lipid metabolism, including digestion and absorption of lipids, the fate of absorbed lipids, mobilization of fatty acids from adipose tissue, beta-oxidation of fatty acids, ketone body formation and utilization, lipogenesis, and the clinical importance of lipid metabolism. Key points covered include the roles of bile acids and pancreatic lipases in lipid digestion, the formation and function of chylomicrons, hormone-sensitive lipase activation of fatty acid mobilization, fatty acid activation and beta-oxidation pathways, ketogenesis in the liver, the steps and regulation of lipogenesis, and clinical correlates such as ketoacidosis and fatty acid oxidation defects.
Ketogenesis and ketolysis ---Sir Khalid (Biochem)Soft-Learners
Ketogenesis is the formation of ketone bodies in the liver mitochondria when fatty acid breakdown from beta-oxidation exceeds carbohydrate breakdown, such as during starvation or uncontrolled diabetes. This is because acetyl-CoA production overloads the citric acid cycle. Acetyl-CoA is converted to ketone bodies like acetoacetate, acetone, and 3-hydroxybutyrate, which travel through the bloodstream and are used by muscles and brain as fuel, providing an easy transport of fatty acid energy when glucose is limited.
La teoría de las inteligencias múltiples propone que existen diferentes tipos de inteligencia más allá de la inteligencia lógico-matemática y lingüística tradicionalmente medidas. Estas incluyen la inteligencia naturalista para reconocer plantas y animales, la inteligencia espacial para percibir el mundo visual-espacial, y la inteligencia interpersonal para comprender a otras personas.
A good engineer shows a favorable attitude towards research and updating their knowledge of information technologies. They orient their professional work towards national and regional development by understanding complex realities. A good engineer also promotes systems approaches to understand complexity, develops business strategies, applies scientific methods to analyze and design solutions to problems, uses systems approaches to model organizations, designs solutions to organizational issues, and integrates organizational information.
- Plants convert 100 metric tons of CO2 into carbohydrates each year through photosynthesis.
- Carbohydrates are the most abundant organic molecules and serve important functions like energy storage, structure, and encoding biologic information through oligosaccharide chains.
- Monosaccharides can exist as cyclic or linear structures and take on different configurations that impact their chemical and physical properties. Common techniques like mutarotation, osazone formation, and oxidation reactions are used to characterize carbohydrates.
This slide will help you to understand about chemical reactions of monosaccharides and Disaccharides. The carbohydrate can can undergo several reactions like oxidation, reduction, esterification, dehydration and tautomerization to give various products.
Carbohydrates are polyhydroxy compounds that contain a carbonyl group and are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. The three main types are monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides like glucose and fructose exist as both open-chain and ring forms, with the ring forms being more stable. Carbohydrates undergo reactions like isomerization, oxidation, reduction, and acetal formation involving their carbonyl groups. They can exist in several isomeric forms differing in stereoconfiguration and anomeric form.
Digestion and Absorption of biomolecules.pptxYubrajBhatta1
This document summarizes the digestion and absorption of carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids. It describes how each macronutrient is broken down by enzymes into smaller molecules in the mouth, stomach, and small intestine. Carbohydrates are digested into monosaccharides like glucose, proteins into di- and tri-peptides, and lipids into fatty acids and monoacylglycerols. These smaller molecules are then absorbed across the intestinal epithelium and transported to cells for energy or building new molecules. Bile salts play an important role in emulsifying lipids to facilitate their digestion and absorption as mixed micelles.
- Digestion breaks down carbohydrates, proteins, and fats into smaller molecules so they can be absorbed in the small intestine. Carbohydrates are broken into monosaccharides, proteins into dipeptides/tripeptides/amino acids, and fats into fatty acids and monoglycerides.
- Absorption occurs mainly in the small intestine through active transport, facilitated diffusion, and osmosis. Nutrients pass from the intestinal lumen into enterocytes and cross the basolateral membrane into blood. The villi and microvilli increase absorptive surface area.
- Unabsorbed materials pass to the large intestine where further water and electrolyte absorption occurs before elimination as feces
This document discusses carbohydrate chemistry. It defines carbohydrates as organic molecules found in nature that are made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Carbohydrates are classified based on their structure into monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides include important hexoses like glucose and fructose. Carbohydrates exhibit properties like optical activity and stereoisomerism due to asymmetric carbon atoms. Key topics covered include glycosidic linkages, reducing sugars, ring structure forms (pyranose and furanose), and epimers. Physiologically important monosaccharides and derived sugars are also mentioned.
This document discusses carbohydrate structure and isomerism. It describes the different structural representations of monosaccharides including Fischer projections, Haworth projections, and chair/boat conformations. It also defines different types of isomerism including structural isomerism, stereoisomerism, enantiomers, epimers, anomers, and mutarotation. Disaccharides and polysaccharides are formed by condensation reactions and can be reducing or non-reducing depending on whether the glycosidic linkage involves one or both carbonyl groups. Common examples of oligo- and polysaccharides are also provided.
Carbohydrates are digested in the mouth by salivary amylase and in the small intestine by pancreatic amylase and intestinal enzymes. These enzymes break down starches and sugars into monosaccharides like glucose, galactose and fructose, which are then absorbed into the bloodstream. Some common disorders of carbohydrate digestion include lactose intolerance, due to a deficiency of lactase, and sucrase deficiency, due to a lack of the enzyme sucrase. These disorders can cause abdominal symptoms like cramps and diarrhea.
Carbohydrates are the most abundant biomolecules on Earth and serve important functions in living organisms. They include monosaccharides like glucose and fructose, oligosaccharides like sucrose and lactose, and polysaccharides like starch, cellulose, and glycogen. Monosaccharides are either aldoses or ketoses and commonly exist as cyclic structures with α and β anomers. Glycosidic bonds link monosaccharides into oligosaccharides and polysaccharides, which serve structural roles like cellulose and chitin or storage roles like starch and glycogen. Carbohydrates play key roles through their diverse structures and functions.
This document discusses disaccharides, which are formed through a condensation reaction between two monosaccharides that results in the removal of a water molecule. It classifies the main disaccharides - sucrose, lactose, and maltose. Sucrose is formed from glucose and fructose and is non-reducing. Lactose is formed from glucose and galactose and is reducing. Maltose is formed from two glucose molecules and is also reducing. The document provides the structures and functions of these three disaccharides.
Glycogenolysis is the breakdown of glycogen into glucose-1-phosphate. It occurs in three steps:
1) Phosphorolysis by glycogen phosphorylase cleaves α-1,4 glycosidic linkages, producing glucose-1-phosphate until four glucose residues remain.
2) A debranching enzyme removes these four residue branches through two activities, producing linear chains of glucose residues.
3) Phosphoglucomutase converts glucose-1-phosphate to glucose-6-phosphate, which can then enter glycolysis to produce energy or be released as free glucose from the liver. Glycogenolysis is regulated by allosteric effectors, hormones like glucagon and
Oligosaccharides are sugar molecules made of 2-10 monosaccharide units. They are less sweet and less soluble than monosaccharides. Oligosaccharides are classified based on the number of monosaccharide units and include disaccharides with 2 units, trisaccharides with 3 units, and tetrasaccharides and pentasaccharides with 4 and 5 units respectively. Oligosaccharides are not digested by humans but are consumed by intestinal bacteria, which is important as it helps the growth of microflora, reduces pathogens, prevents constipation, and provides other health benefits.
This document discusses the nomenclature and classification of carbohydrates. It defines monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. It describes the structural features of common monosaccharides like glucose, galactose, and mannose. It also discusses stereoisomers, anomers, mutarotation, and the reactions of monosaccharides like reduction, oxidation, ester formation, and glycoside formation. Important carbohydrate derivatives like amino sugars are also introduced.
Polysaccharide introduction, example, structure, starch, cellulose, chitin those structure and important functions and their presence in plants and animals, polysaccharide types based on functions and their composition , functions of polysaccharides , important images for relevant polysaccharides types, polysaccharide role in plants and animal cells. Starch - structure and functions, cellulose structure and functions, chitin - structure and functions
1) Fructose is absorbed in the small intestine and metabolized separately in the liver and muscle.
2) In the liver, fructose is converted to fructose-1-phosphate then glyceraldehyde and dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP) which can enter glycolysis or gluconeogenesis.
3) Excess fructose intake can lead to hyperlipidemia as the liver converts fructose to triglycerides and glycoproteins.
Carbohydrates are made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They exist as monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides can be aldoses or ketoses and exist as cyclic structures in solution. Disaccharides like sucrose are formed through glycosidic bond formation between two monosaccharides. Polysaccharides vary in composition and function, with starch and glycogen serving as energy storage and cellulose providing structural support. Glycoconjugates are carbohydrates bound to proteins or lipids that play important roles in cell signaling and recognition.
Introduction and defination
Classification
Reducing sugars
Non-reducing sugars
General properties
Common disaccharides
1) sucrose
Origin
Structure
Properties
Function
This document summarizes key aspects of lipid metabolism, including digestion and absorption of lipids, the fate of absorbed lipids, mobilization of fatty acids from adipose tissue, beta-oxidation of fatty acids, ketone body formation and utilization, lipogenesis, and the clinical importance of lipid metabolism. Key points covered include the roles of bile acids and pancreatic lipases in lipid digestion, the formation and function of chylomicrons, hormone-sensitive lipase activation of fatty acid mobilization, fatty acid activation and beta-oxidation pathways, ketogenesis in the liver, the steps and regulation of lipogenesis, and clinical correlates such as ketoacidosis and fatty acid oxidation defects.
Ketogenesis and ketolysis ---Sir Khalid (Biochem)Soft-Learners
Ketogenesis is the formation of ketone bodies in the liver mitochondria when fatty acid breakdown from beta-oxidation exceeds carbohydrate breakdown, such as during starvation or uncontrolled diabetes. This is because acetyl-CoA production overloads the citric acid cycle. Acetyl-CoA is converted to ketone bodies like acetoacetate, acetone, and 3-hydroxybutyrate, which travel through the bloodstream and are used by muscles and brain as fuel, providing an easy transport of fatty acid energy when glucose is limited.
La teoría de las inteligencias múltiples propone que existen diferentes tipos de inteligencia más allá de la inteligencia lógico-matemática y lingüística tradicionalmente medidas. Estas incluyen la inteligencia naturalista para reconocer plantas y animales, la inteligencia espacial para percibir el mundo visual-espacial, y la inteligencia interpersonal para comprender a otras personas.
A good engineer shows a favorable attitude towards research and updating their knowledge of information technologies. They orient their professional work towards national and regional development by understanding complex realities. A good engineer also promotes systems approaches to understand complexity, develops business strategies, applies scientific methods to analyze and design solutions to problems, uses systems approaches to model organizations, designs solutions to organizational issues, and integrates organizational information.
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Somnath City Plots Neemrana Ready for Living,8459137252kharkara5
The document contains contact information for a property located in Delhi, India including the address Royal Square Ghilot in Bhiwadi and contact details for Ald Lavanya Neemrana including the floor number G+2 and contact phone number +7503367689.
Watch a live demonstration of our engineering game for water infrastructure planning at IFAT 2016, Hall A5, Booth 217, Fraunhofer-Allianz SysWasser on June, 2nd. , 4p.m.!
This short document promotes the creation of presentations on SlideShare using Haiku Deck. It includes a stock photo of a library and text suggesting the reader gets started making their own Haiku Deck presentation. In just a few words, it pitches the idea of easily creating slideshows on SlideShare using Haiku Deck's online presentation tools.
El documento describe el concepto de paradigma según Thomas Kuhn. Explica que Kuhn propuso que la ciencia no progresa de forma uniforme mediante la aplicación de un método científico, sino a través de fases que incluyen la creación de consensos sobre problemas y soluciones (paradigmas), la búsqueda de nuevas teorías, y posibles revoluciones científicas cuando una nueva teoría reemplaza a las existentes, dando lugar a un cambio de paradigma. También define el paradigma cuantitativo y sus característic
Este documento explica la diferencia entre diptongos, triptongos e hiatos. Un diptongo es la unión de dos vocales en la misma sílaba, como en "cielo" o "ruido". Los diptongos llevan tilde según las reglas de acentuación. Un triptongo une tres vocales en una sílaba y lleva tilde en la vocal abierta. Un hiato une dos vocales en sílabas diferentes, como en "caoba" o "teatro". Los hiatos formados por vocal abierta y cerrada llevan
Bharti Airtel is an Indian multinational telecommunications services company founded in 1995 by Sunil Bharti Mittal. Its vision is to be the most loved brand by 2015, enriching the lives of millions. Its mission is to become the most admired telecom service provider globally with a spirit of energy, creativity and ambition. Airtel strives for innovation and honesty in its values. It has expanded through mergers and acquisitions and offers mobile, fixed line, and DTH services with a wide network reach. Airtel faces competition threats but also opportunities through strategic partnerships. It uses segmentation, targeting, positioning and a 7P marketing mix strategy.
This document discusses the metabolism of fructose and galactose. It outlines the dietary sources and absorption pathways of each sugar. Fructose is metabolized separately in the liver and muscle, while galactose is metabolized through a pathway involving phosphorylation, reduction, and synthesis of UDP-galactose. The document also describes inborn errors that can occur in these metabolic pathways, including fructokinase deficiency, aldolase B deficiency, and classic galactosemia due to galactose-1-phosphate uridylyltransferase deficiency. These errors can result in conditions like fructosuria, fructose intolerance, and galactosemia.
The document discusses saccharides, which are polyhydroxyaldehydes, polyhydroxyketones, or substances that break down into these compounds. It classifies them as monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, or polysaccharides based on their structure. Monosaccharides are simple sugars that cannot be further broken down. They include aldoses and ketoses, which differ in having an aldehyde or ketone functional group. Monosaccharides commonly exist as cyclic hemiacetals or hemiketals and can take on alpha or beta anomer configurations.
The document discusses carbohydrate chemistry and classification using Greek terminology. It defines that the name glucose comes from the Greek word for sweet. Chirality, or handedness, refers to Greek for hand. Carbohydrates are named from the Greek for sugar. Key classifications discussed include monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. Specific monosaccharides mentioned include glyceraldehyde, erythrose, ribose, and glucose. Stereoisomers such as enantiomers and epimers are defined. Carbohydrates are designated as D- or L- based on the stereochemistry of the highest numbered chiral carbon.
Carbohydrates are organic compounds made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen that are found in foods and living tissues. They include sugars, starches, and fibers. Carbohydrates break down in the body to release energy. The general formula for carbohydrates is Cx(H2O)y. Carbohydrates are classified as monosaccharides, disaccharides, or polysaccharides depending on their structure and number of sugar units. Common sources of carbohydrates include potatoes, grains, milk, and fruits.
Carbohydrate property, classification and functionPraveen Garg
Carbohydrates are biomolecules made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They can be classified as monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, or polysaccharides depending on their size. Monosaccharides are the simplest form of carbohydrate and include trioses, tetroses, pentoses, hexoses, and heptoses based on the number of carbon atoms. Common monosaccharides include glucose, fructose, and galactose. Monosaccharides can exist as cyclic or linear structures and have properties like mutarotation. They serve important functions as an energy source in cells and as intermediates in metabolic pathways.
This document discusses carbohydrates. It defines carbohydrates as polyhydroxyaldehydes, ketones, or compounds that produce them on hydrolysis. Carbohydrates are classified as monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, or polysaccharides based on the number of sugar units. Monosaccharides include aldoses and ketoses. Carbohydrates participate in energy storage and structure. Common carbohydrates discussed include starch, glycogen, cellulose, and glycoproteins.
This document provides information on carbohydrate chemistry including:
- Monosaccharides are solids with sweet taste that are extremely soluble in water due to hydroxyl groups.
- Carbohydrates exhibit isomerism including enantiomers, epimers, anomers, and aldose-ketose isomers.
- Carbohydrates commonly exist as cyclic structures called pyranoses and furanoses which create new chiral centers.
This document provides an overview of carbohydrates and discusses their classification and important biochemical properties. It begins with the objectives of studying carbohydrates and provides background on biochemistry. It then classifies carbohydrates as monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, or polysaccharides depending on the number of sugar units. Important monosaccharides like glucose, fructose, galactose and ribose are discussed. The document explains chiral properties of carbohydrates and how they exist in D- and L- forms. It describes how to represent carbohydrate structures using Fischer projections and Haworth projections.
Classification of Carbohydrate Part-I.pptxABHIJIT BHOYAR
This document discusses the classification of carbohydrates. Carbohydrates are classified as monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, or polysaccharides based on their sugar unit composition. Monosaccharides are the simplest and include glucose and fructose. Oligosaccharides contain 2-10 monosaccharide units and include disaccharides like sucrose and lactose. Polysaccharides are long chains of monosaccharide units and include starch and cellulose. Within these groups, carbohydrates can be further classified based on factors like the number of carbon atoms (trioses, hexoses) or the presence of an aldehyde or ketone functional group (aldoses, ketoses).
This document provides an overview of carbohydrates and their classification. It begins by defining carbohydrates and their importance in biochemistry. It then discusses the classification of carbohydrates into monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. The majority of the document focuses on monosaccharides, including their stereochemistry, classification based on carbon atoms, physical and chemical properties, and examples of common monosaccharides.
Carbohydrates are the most abundant organic molecules composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They are classified as monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, or polysaccharides depending on the number of sugar units. Monosaccharides include glucose and fructose and can further be classified as aldoses or ketoses based on their functional group. Monosaccharides exhibit structural isomerism and can exist in multiple cyclic and acyclic forms. Glucose specifically can form α-D-glucopyranose and α-D-glucofuranose structures and its anomers α-glucose and β-glucose undergo mutarotation. Carbohydrates serve important functions as
Carbohydrates are the most abundant organic molecules composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They are classified as monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, or polysaccharides depending on the number of sugar units. Monosaccharides include glucose and fructose and can further be classified as aldoses or ketoses based on their functional group. Monosaccharides exhibit structural isomerism and can exist in multiple cyclic and acyclic forms. Glucose specifically can form α-D-glucopyranose and α-D-glucofuranose structures and its anomers α-glucose and β-glucose undergo mutarotation. Carbohydrates serve important functions as
This presentation is made for F.Y.Bsc. Students.
The presentation includes the General Properties of Carbohydrate and the classification of carbohydrates.
Carbohydrates are organic compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They can be classified as monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, or polysaccharides depending on the number of sugar units. Monosaccharides include glucose and fructose. Disaccharides like sucrose and lactose are composed of two monosaccharide units. Polysaccharides such as starch, glycogen, cellulose, and chitin are polymers of many monosaccharide units and serve structural or energy storage functions. Carbohydrates play important roles in energy storage, structure, and various cellular functions through their participation in glycoproteins and glycolipids.
Biochemistry of Carbohydrates for MBBS, BDS, Lab Med 2024.pptxRajendra Dev Bhatt
Carbohydrates are carbon compounds that contain large quantities of hydroxyl groups.
The simplest carbohydrates also contain either an aldehyde moiety (these are termed polyhydroxyaldehydes) or a ketone moiety (polyhydroxyketones).
All carbohydrates can be classified as either monosaccharides, oligosaccharides or polysaccharides.
This document provides information about carbohydrates. It begins by defining carbohydrates and describing their main biological functions. It then discusses the three main classes of carbohydrates: monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. For each class, key examples are provided and their structures and properties are explained. The document also covers topics like stereochemistry of carbohydrates, glycosaminoglycans, and important monosaccharides and polysaccharides like starch, cellulose, and glycogen. In summary, it serves as a comprehensive overview of carbohydrate structure, classification, and functions in biological systems.
This document discusses the nomenclature and classification of carbohydrates. It defines monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. It describes the structural features of common monosaccharides like glucose, galactose, and mannose. It also discusses stereoisomers, anomers, mutarotation, and the reactions of monosaccharides like reduction, oxidation, ester formation, and glycoside formation. Important carbohydrate derivatives like amino sugars are also introduced.
This document discusses carbohydrates and their isomers. Carbohydrates are abundant organic molecules that serve important roles as energy storage and structural components. Monosaccharides can form stereoisomers due to asymmetric carbon atoms, including enantiomers which are mirror images, diastereomers with configurations opposite at two or more carbons, and epimers differing at one carbon. Disaccharides are formed from two monosaccharides and include reducing sugars like lactose and maltose, and the non-reducing sugar sucrose. Carbohydrates play essential functions in living organisms.
The document discusses carbohydrates, which are sugars and their derivatives that provide energy. Carbohydrates are classified as monosaccharides (simple sugars like glucose), disaccharides (two monosaccharides bonded together like sucrose), or polysaccharides (long chains of monosaccharides like starch). Glucose is the most common and important monosaccharide for living organisms. Carbohydrates can exist as open-chain or cyclic ring structures and have D and L stereoisomers depending on the orientation of hydroxyl groups. Important carbohydrates include glucose, fructose, and ribose which make up disaccharides and nucleic acids.
1) Carbohydrates are an essential class of biomolecules that serve as the primary energy source for many organisms. They are classified into monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides depending on their size.
2) Monosaccharides include glucose, fructose, and galactose. Oligosaccharides consist of 2-9 monosaccharide units and include disaccharides like sucrose and maltose. Polysaccharides are long chains of monosaccharide units and include starch, cellulose, and glycogen.
3) Carbohydrates play important biological roles like energy storage, structure, transport, and prevention of diseases. Glucose is a key energy source, while
Carbohydrates are polyhydroxy aldehydes, ketones, or compounds derived from their hydrolysis.
Carbohydrates are also known as sugars.
Carbohydrates have the general formula C(H2O)n, where n is the number of carbon atoms.
Carbohydrates are mainly composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
The term “sugar” is applied to carbohydrates that are soluble in water and sweet to taste.
Students gathered for a session to discuss their studies and plans. Many shared challenges they faced with keeping up with their coursework while balancing other responsibilities. Ideas were exchanged on effective time management strategies and using campus resources to stay on track academically.
This document provides information about lipid profiles and their normal ranges. It discusses how to collect and process blood specimens for lipid profiles. It then defines the components of a lipid profile including total cholesterol, HDL cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, triglycerides, and VLDL cholesterol. For each component, it provides the normal ranges and clinical significance of abnormal levels. It also briefly discusses apolipoprotein B, phospholipids, chylomicrons, and factors that can increase or decrease their levels.
Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids are the four major macromolecules that make up living things. Carbohydrates include sugars and starches and are used for energy storage. Lipids are composed of fatty acids and glycerol and function in energy storage, protection, and insulation. Proteins contain amino acids and perform a variety of functions including growth, energy production, and pH buffering. Nucleic acids like DNA and RNA contain nucleotides and store and transmit genetic information that directs cellular functions. These macromolecules are formed through dehydration synthesis and broken down through hydrolysis.
Lipids are a group of naturally occurring molecules that include fats, waxes, sterols, and fat-soluble vitamins. They serve important functions like storing energy, signaling, and as structural components of cell membranes. The document defines lipids and discusses their chemistry, classifications, structures, and biological importance. Key points covered include that lipids are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents, and include triglycerides, fatty acids, and other compounds.
Eicosanoids are oxygenation products of arachidonic acid (AA), a polyunsaturated fatty acid found in animal and plant cell membranes. AA is released from membranes by phospholipase A2 and metabolized via either the cyclooxygenase pathway to form prostaglandins, prostacyclin, and thromboxanes, or the lipoxygenase pathway to form leukotrienes. These eicosanoids are involved in various physiological functions including inflammation, smooth muscle tone, blood coagulation, reproduction, and GI secretion. Clinical applications of prostaglandins include female and male reproductive health, inflammation and immunity, gastrointestinal, respiratory, musculoskeletal, cardiovascular, ocular health, and cancer.
Aerobic organisms continuously produce reactive free radicals through respiration, metabolism and phagocytosis. Approximately 1-2% of oxygen consumed is converted into superoxide radicals by the respiratory chain, one of the main sources of free radicals in cells. While oxygen is necessary for life, its partial reduction can produce reactive oxygen species (ROS) that damage living systems. The body has multiple antioxidant defenses to combat ROS, including superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione peroxidase and vitamin C, which help convert ROS into less reactive species and protect biomolecules from oxidative damage.
Lipids are a group of naturally occurring molecules that include fats, waxes, sterols, and fat-soluble vitamins. They serve important functions like energy storage, signaling, and as structural components of cell membranes. The main classes of lipids are neutral fats/triglycerides (consisting of glycerol and fatty acids), phospholipids, and sterols. Fatty acids can be saturated or unsaturated, and polyunsaturated fatty acids like omega-3 and omega-6 are essential nutrients. Lipids are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents, and are an important energy source in animals and plants.
This document discusses carcinogens and cancer. It defines cancer as abnormal cell growth that can invade other tissues and spread to other parts of the body. Carcinogens are substances that can cause cancer. Chemical carcinogens include aromatic hydrocarbons, aromatic amines, and chemicals containing epoxide, organohalogen, and nitroso groups. Carcinogens can damage DNA directly or require metabolic activation. Factors that influence cancer development include dose of exposure, lifestyle factors like smoking, and inherited conditions. Engineering controls, personal protective equipment, hygiene practices, and proper waste disposal can reduce exposure to carcinogens.
This document discusses the importance of breastfeeding for infant health and development. It reviews several studies that show breastfeeding reduces the risk of morbidity and mortality from various infectious diseases like diarrhea, otitis media, neonatal sepsis, and respiratory infections. However, in many societies false beliefs interfere with breastfeeding and infants are commonly given prelacteal feeds or mixed feeding instead of being exclusively breastfed. The purpose of the study described is to examine the patterns of infectious diseases in non-breastfed infants compared to breastfed infants admitted to the hospital.
This document describes a study comparing plasma osmolarity in healthy breastfed and non-breastfed infants. The study included breastfed and non-breastfed infants between 1-6 months of age. Blood samples were collected and analyzed for various biomarkers including glucose, BUN, sodium, potassium, total protein, and albumin levels. Plasma osmolarity was then directly estimated and calculated based on biomarker levels. Results showed breastfed infants had significantly lower glucose, BUN, and plasma osmolarity levels compared to non-breastfed infants. The study concluded breastfeeding provides a lower solute load compared to formula feeding, resulting in lower plasma osmolarity in healthy breastfed infants.
1. Metabolism refers to the chemical processes that take place in living organisms to sustain life. It includes breaking down nutrients into smaller units and building up complex molecules.
2. Glucose, fats, and proteins are broken down through various pathways to ultimately form acetyl CoA, which enters the citric acid cycle to generate energy in the form of ATP. Less oxygen results in lactic acid formation from glucose.
3. The electron transport chain uses oxygen to convert products of the citric acid cycle into large amounts of ATP, the main energy currency of cells. Fatty acids yield more ATP than glucose due to their carbon-hydrogen bonds.
The Tufts Robotics Club attended the Trinity College Fire Fighting Robot Contest where they won both the team and individual categories of the Olympiad tournament. This marked the club's fourth win since 2014. They competed in both the mechanical robot competition and trivia-based Olympiad. For the robot competition, Tufts engineered a robot that followed the right wall of the maze and used a fire extinguisher to put out a candle, navigating the maze faster than other teams. In the Olympiad, they demonstrated their strong theoretical engineering knowledge, with sophomore Faizan Muhammad winning individually. The success at this competition aims to attract new recruits to the club.
A glucose tolerance test (GTT) checks how the body metabolizes blood sugar levels over time. There are two main types: an oral GTT where glucose is ingested, and an intravenous GTT where glucose is injected. It is commonly used to screen for prediabetes and diabetes, especially in obese, pregnant, or high-risk individuals. The test involves fasting overnight, then drinking a glucose solution and having blood drawn over 3 hours to analyze the body's insulin response and how quickly glucose is cleared from the blood. Results are interpreted according to WHO criteria, with different glucose level thresholds indicating normal, prediabetes, or diabetes status.
This document summarizes a study that compares the performance of two state observers - a sliding mode observer with super-twisting algorithm (STSMO) and a high gain observer (HGO) - for estimating unmeasured states of a quadrotor UAV. The paper designs each observer and then applies a second order sliding mode control technique using the estimated states to control the quadrotor. Simulations show the performance of each observer under the same control scheme and perturbations. The study aims to compare the observers' characteristics for state estimation of the quadrotor system to determine the best observer for real-time applications given system uncertainties and noise.
This study examined the usage of social media by students at the FJMU Lahore. A questionnaire was distributed to 415 students to gather data on their social media usage patterns and behaviors. The results found that 95.9% of students used social media daily, with 77% spending 1-2 hours per day on social media. Major purposes of usage were communication (94%) and entertainment (93%), though 46% also used it for studying. Students reported social media could waste time and distract from studies, but could also be useful for sharing medical videos, knowledge and study guidelines. The study concludes social media distracts students and encourages more non-educational activities, so students should utilize it more for academic purposes and limit entertainment usage
Dr. Muhammad Mustansar has achieved international recognition for his work. He holds a world record and has had his research published in international posters and books. His accomplishments demonstrate expertise in his field at a global level.
This document provides instructions for several histopathology staining techniques, including:
- Periodic Acid Schiff (PAS) staining for polysaccharides and basement membranes in magenta.
- Gram-Twort modification for staining bacteria in paraffin sections in blue-black (Gram positive) and pink (Gram negative).
- Ziehl-Neelsen technique for staining acid-fast bacilli like Mycobacterium tuberculosis red against a blue background.
It also describes the Periodic Acid Schiff/Alcian Blue dual stain to differentiate acid mucins (blue) from neutral mucins and carbohydrates (magenta). Precise protocols and reagent preparations are provided for accurate histological analysis.
This document provides information on various histopathology staining techniques. It describes the steps for taking paraffin sections to water, dehydrating and clearing sections in xylene, blotting sections dry, and mounting sections. It also details procedures for Ziehl-Neelsen staining for acid-fast bacilli, Gram-Twort staining for bacteria, Periodic acid Schiff staining, Periodic acid Schiff/Alcian blue staining, and the buffered Congo red method for amyloid. Precise reagents and safety notes are included for each technique.
This document discusses guidelines for drug use during lactation. It begins by outlining principles from the Quran and Hadith regarding breastfeeding. It then discusses anatomy related to lactation and hormonal regulation. Guidelines for chemotherapy during lactation emphasize using drugs with minimal infant exposure and avoiding unnecessary drugs. Several classes of drugs are discussed, identifying those that are generally safe to use during lactation like beta-blockers, thiazides, ACE inhibitors, warfarin, inhaled asthma medications, and corticosteroids. Drugs that should be avoided include phenobarbital, primodone, and clonazepam. The document also covers stimulants and inhibitors of lactation.
How to Make a Field Mandatory in Odoo 17Celine George
In Odoo, making a field required can be done through both Python code and XML views. When you set the required attribute to True in Python code, it makes the field required across all views where it's used. Conversely, when you set the required attribute in XML views, it makes the field required only in the context of that particular view.
ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, and GDPR: Best Practices for Implementation and...PECB
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What sets Denis apart is his comprehensive understanding of Business and Systems Analysis technologies, honed through involvement in all phases of the Software Development Lifecycle (SDLC). From meticulous requirements gathering to precise analysis, innovative design, rigorous development, thorough testing, and successful implementation, he has consistently delivered exceptional results.
Throughout his career, he has taken on multifaceted roles, from leading technical project management teams to owning solutions that drive operational excellence. His conscientious and proactive approach is unwavering, whether he is working independently or collaboratively within a team. His ability to connect with colleagues on a personal level underscores his commitment to fostering a harmonious and productive workplace environment.
Date: May 29, 2024
Tags: Information Security, ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, Artificial Intelligence, GDPR
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How to Add Chatter in the odoo 17 ERP ModuleCeline George
In Odoo, the chatter is like a chat tool that helps you work together on records. You can leave notes and track things, making it easier to talk with your team and partners. Inside chatter, all communication history, activity, and changes will be displayed.
Strategies for Effective Upskilling is a presentation by Chinwendu Peace in a Your Skill Boost Masterclass organisation by the Excellence Foundation for South Sudan on 08th and 09th June 2024 from 1 PM to 3 PM on each day.
How to Setup Warehouse & Location in Odoo 17 InventoryCeline George
In this slide, we'll explore how to set up warehouses and locations in Odoo 17 Inventory. This will help us manage our stock effectively, track inventory levels, and streamline warehouse operations.
Main Java[All of the Base Concepts}.docxadhitya5119
This is part 1 of my Java Learning Journey. This Contains Custom methods, classes, constructors, packages, multithreading , try- catch block, finally block and more.
Leveraging Generative AI to Drive Nonprofit InnovationTechSoup
In this webinar, participants learned how to utilize Generative AI to streamline operations and elevate member engagement. Amazon Web Service experts provided a customer specific use cases and dived into low/no-code tools that are quick and easy to deploy through Amazon Web Service (AWS.)
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How to Manage Your Lost Opportunities in Odoo 17 CRMCeline George
Odoo 17 CRM allows us to track why we lose sales opportunities with "Lost Reasons." This helps analyze our sales process and identify areas for improvement. Here's how to configure lost reasons in Odoo 17 CRM
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty, In...Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty,
International FDP on Fundamentals of Research in Social Sciences
at Integral University, Lucknow, 06.06.2024
By Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
3. LETS LEARN SOME GREEK!!!!
The name glucose comes from the Greek word
glykys (γλυκύς), meaning "sweet", plus the suffix
"-ose" which denotes a sugar
4 chiral centers give 24 = the 16 stereoisomer s
of hexose sugars. Chirality, or
"handedness", Greek, (χειρ), kheir: "hand”
chiral carbons are enantiomers
Alpha α and Beta β are letters in the Greek
alphabet
6. Carbohydrates
• Carbohydrates, or saccharides (saccharo is Greek for ―sugar)
are polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones, or substances that yield such
compounds on hydrolysis.
• Carbohydrates include not only sugar, but also the starches that
we find in foods, such as bread, pasta, and rice.
• The term ―carbohydrate comes from the observation that when
you heat sugars, you get carbon and water (hence, hydrate of
carbon).
7. Carbohydrates and Biochemistry
•Carbohydrates are compounds of tremendous
biological importance:
–they provide energy through oxidation
–they supply carbon for the synthesis of cell
components
–they serve as a form of stored chemical energy
–they form part of the structures of some cells and
tissues
•Carbohydrates, along with lipids, proteins, nucleic
acids, and other compounds are known as
biomolecules because they are closely associated
with living organisms.
10. CLASSIFICATION:
1- Monosaccharides (simple sugars):
They can not be hydrolyzed into simpler units. E.g. glucose,
galactose,ribose
2- Oligosaccharides (oligo = few): contain from two to ten
monosaccharide units joined in glycosidic bonds. e.g.
• disaccharides (2 units) e.g. maltose and sucrose,
• trisaccharides (3 units).....etc.
3-Polysaccharides (poly = many): Also known as glycans.
They are composed of more than ten monosaccharide
units e.g. starch, glycogen, cellulose.....etc.
11. Monosaccharides
CLASSIFICATION OF MONOSACCHARIDES
1- According to the number of carbon atoms:
.Trioses, contain 3 carbon atoms.
• Tetroses, contain 4 carbon atoms.
• Pentoses, contain 5 carbon atoms.
• Hexoses, contain 6 carbon atoms.
• Heptoses, contain 7 carbon atoms.
• Octoses. contain 8 carbon atoms.
12. 2- According to the characteristic
carbonyl group (aldehyde or ketone
group):
- Aldo sugars: aldoses:
Contain aldehyde group e.g. glucose,
ribose, erythrose and glyceraldehydes.
- Keto sugars: ketoses:
Contain ketone group e.g. fructose, ribulose
and dihydroxy acetone.
19. It is aptly said that Glyceraldehyde is the
‘Reference Carbohydrate’
20. Cyanohydrin Formation and Chain Extension.
Kiliani-Fischer Synthesis- a series of reaction that
extends carbon chain in a carbohydrate by one carbon and one chiral
centre.
20
21. Determination of carbohydrate stereochemistry
1) HCN
2) H2, Pd/BaSO4
3) H2O
CHO
H
OH
H
OH
HNO3,
heat
CO2H
H
OH
H
OH
CH2OH
CO2H
D-(-)-erythrose
tartaric acid
CHO
H
OH
CH2OH
Killiani-Fischer
synthesis
D-(+)-glyceraldehyde
CHO
HO
H
1) HCN
2) H2, Pd/BaSO4
3) H2O
H
OH
CH2OH
HNO3,
heat
CO2H
HO
H
H
OH
CO2H
D-(-)-threose
D-(-)-tartaric acid
21
22. 1) HCN
CHO
2) H2, Pd/BaSO4
H
OH
3) H2O
H
OH
H
CO2H
HNO3,
heat
OH
H
OH
H
OH
H
OH
CH2OH
CO2H
D-(-)-ribose
ribonic acid
CHO
H
OH
H
OH
Killiani-Fischer
synthesis
CH2OH
D-(-)-erythrose
CHO
HO
H
H
1) HCN
2) H2, Pd/BaSO4
3) H2O
OH
H
OH
CH2OH
D-(-)-arabinose
CO2H
HNO3,
heat
HO
H
H
OH
H
OH
CO2H
arabonic acid
22
23. 1) HCN
2) H2, Pd/BaSO4
3) H2O
CHO
H
HO
H
OH
H
CO2H
HNO3,
heat
OH
H
HO
H
CH2OH
OH
H
OH
CO2H
D-(+)-xylose
xylonic acid
CHO
HO
H
H
OH
Killiani-Fischer
synthesis
CH2OH
D-(-)-threose
CO2H
CHO
HO
HO
1) HCN
2) H2, Pd/BaSO4
3) H2O
H
H
H
OH
CH2OH
D-(-)-lyxose
HNO3,
heat
HO
H
HO
H
H
OH
CO2H
lyxonic acid
23
25. Physical Properties of
Monosaccharides
• Most monosaccharides have a sweet taste (fructose
is sweetest; 73% sweeter than sucrose).
• They are solids at room temperature.
• They are extremely soluble in water:
• Despite their high molecular weights, the presence
of large numbers of OH groups make the
monosaccharides much more water soluble than
most molecules of similar MW.
• Glucose can dissolve in minute amounts of water to
make a syrup (1 g / 1 ml H2O).
28. The Stereochemistry of
Carbohydrates
• Two Forms of Glyceraldehyde
•Glyceraldehyde, the simplest
carbohydrate, exists in two isomeric forms
that are mirror images of each other:
10
29. Stereoisomers
• These forms are stereoisomers of each other.
• Glyceraldehyde is a chiral molecule — it
cannot be superimposed on its mirror image. The
two mirror-image forms of glyceraldehyde are
enantiomers of each other.
• Chirality and Handedness
• Chiral molecules have the same
relationship to each other that your left and
right hands have when reflected in a mirror.
•
11
30. Chiral Carbons
• Chiral objects cannot be superimposed on their mirror
images —e.g., hands, gloves, and shoes.
• Achiral objects can be superimposed on the mirror images
—e.g., drinking glasses, spheres, and cubes.
• Any carbon atom which is connected to four different
groups will be chiral, and will have two
nonsuperimposable mirror images; it is a chiral carbon or
a center of chirality.
• –If any of the two groups on the carbon are the same, the
carbon atom cannot be chiral.
• Many organic compounds, including
carbohydrates, contain more than one chiral carbon.
31. n rule
Van’t Hoff’s 2
When a molecule has more than one chiral carbon,
each carbon can possibly be arranged in either the
right-hand or left-hand form, thus if there are n
chiral carbons, there are 2n possible stereoisomers.
Maximum number of possible stereoisomers = 2n
Can you tell no. of possible stereoisomers of
CHOLESTEROL?
32. D and L isomers (Enantiomers)
Enantiomers :
They are the mirror image of each others.
CHO
H - C– OH
CH2OH
D-Glyceraldehyde
CHO
HO-C-H
CH2OH
L-Glyceraldehyde
33.
34. Carbohydrates are designated as D- or L- according to the
stereochemistry of the highest numbered chiral carbon of the
Fischer projection. If the hydroxyl group of the highest numbered
chiral carbon is pointing to the right, the sugar is designated as
D (Dextro: Latin for on the right side). If the hydroxyl group is
pointing to the left, the sugar is designated as L (Levo: Latin for
on the left side). Most naturally occurring carbohydrates are of
the D-configuration.
1 CHO
2
H
OH
3
HO
H
4 H
HO
6 CH2OH
highest numbered
"chiral" carbon
1 CHO
H 2 OH
3
HO
H
4
H
OH
5
H
OH
5 CH2OH
D-Glucose
highest numbered
"chiral" carbon
L-Arabinose
CHO
HO
H
highest numbered
"chiral" carbon
CHO
H
OH
HO
H
HO
H
H
OH
HO
H
H
OH
CH2OH
L- glucose
highest numbered
"chiral" carbon
CH2OH
34
D-Arabinose
35. What’s So Great About Chiral
Molecules?
Molecules which are enantiomers of each •
other have exactly the same physical
properties (melting point, boiling point,
index of refraction, etc.) but not their
interaction with polarized light.
•Polarized light vibrates only in one plane; •
it results from passing lights through
polarizing filter
36.
37. Optical Activity
A levorotatory(–) substance rotates polarized light to the left
[e.g., l-glucose; (-)-glucose].
•A dextrorotatory(+) substance rotates polarized light to the
right [e.g., d-glucose; (+)-glucose].
•Molecules which rotate the plane of polarized light are
optically active.
•Many biologically important molecules are chiral and
optically active. Often, living systems contain only one of the
possible stereochemical forms of a compound, or they are
found in separate system.
•
–D-lactic acid is found in living muscles; D-lactic acid is present in sour milk.
–In some cases, one form of a molecule is beneficial, and the enantiomer is a poison (e.g.,
thalidomide).
–Humans can metabolize D-monosaccharides but not L-isomers; only L-amino acids are used
in protein synthesis
•
•
•
•
•
•
38. The Aldotetroses. Glyceraldehyde is the simplest
carbohydrate (C3, aldotriose, 2,3-dihydroxypropanal). The next
carbohydrate are aldotetroses (C4, 2,3,4-trihydroxybutanal).
aldotriose
CHO
H
OH
CH2OH
D-glyceraldehyde
CHO
HO
H
CH2OH
L-glyceraldehyde
aldotetroses
highest numbered
"chiral" carbon
1 CHO
2
H
OH
3
H
OH
4 CH2OH
D-erythrose
1 CHO
HO 2
H
HO 3
H
4 CH2OH
L-erythrose
CHO
CHO
highest numbered
"chiral" carbon
HO
H
H
OH
CH2OH
D-threose
highest numbered
"chiral" carbon
H
HO
OH
H
CH2OH
L-threose
highest numbered
"chiral" carbon
39. Aldopentoses and Aldohexoses.
Aldopentoses: C5, three chiral carbons, eight stereoisomers
CHO
OH
OH
HO
H
H
OH
H
OH
HO
H
OH
H
OH
H
H
HO
H
H
OH
D-xylose
D-arabinose
OH
CH2OH
CH2OH
CH2OH
D-ribose
HO
H
H
H
CH2OH
CHO
CHO
CHO
D-lyxose
Aldohexoses: C6, four chiral carbons, sixteen stereoisomers
CHO
CHO
CHO
OH
HO
H
OH
H
OH
HO
H
OH
H
OH
H
OH
H
OH
HO
H
OH
H
OH
H
OH
H
OH
H
D-allose
CH2OH
D-altrose
H
CHO
H
CH2OH
H
CHO
OH
HO
H
H
OH
HO
H
HO
H
H
OH
H
CH2OH
D- glucose
CH2OH
D-mannose
H
OH
CH2OH
D-gulose
CHO
CHO
HO
H
H
H
CHO
OH
HO
H
OH
HO
H
HO
H
H
HO
H
HO
H
OH
CH2OH
D-idose
H
OH
H
OH
CH2OH
CH2OH
D-galactose
D-talose
40. Fischer Projections and the D-L Notation. Representation
of a three-dimensional molecule as a flat structure. Tetrahedral
carbon represented by two crossed lines:
horizontal line is coming
out of the plane of the
page (toward you)
vertical line is going back
behind the plane of the
paper (away from you)
substituent
carbon
(+)-glyceraldehyde
H C
CH2OH
HO
CHO
CHO
CHO
H
OH
H
OH
CH2OH
CH2OH
CHO
CHO
(-)-glyceraldehyde
CHO
HO C
CH2OH
H
HO
H
CH2OH
HO
H
CH2OH
40
41. Manipulation of Fischer Projections
1. Fischer projections can be rotate by 180° (in the plane of the
page) only!
CHO
180 °
H
CH2OH
OH
HO
H
CH2OH
CHO
(R)
(R)
CHO
180 °
HO
H
CH2OH
(S)
CH2OH
H
OH
CHO
(S)
180°
180°
Valid
Fischer
projection
Valid
Fischer
projection
41
42. a 90° rotation inverts the stereochemistry and is illegal!
90 °
OH
CHO
H
OH
CH2OH
(R)
°
OHC
CH2OH
H
(S)
90 °
90°
This is not the correct convention
for Fischer projections
Should be projecting toward you
Should be projecting away you
This is the correct convention
for Fischer projections and is
the enantiomer
42
43. 2. If one group of a Fischer projection is held steady, the other
three groups can be rotated clockwise or counterclockwise.
hold
steady
CHO
H
CHO
OH
HO
CH2OH
CH2OH
H
(R)
(R)
CHO
H
HO
hold
steady
H
OHC
CH2OH
CH2OH
(S)
Qu ickTime™ and a
TIFF (Uncompressed) de co mpressor
are need ed to see th is pi cture.
120°
(S)
Qu ickTi me™ and a
TIFF (Uncompressed) d ecompresso r
are nee ded to see th is pi ctu re.
hold
steady
hold
steady
Qu ickTime™ and a
TIFF (Uncompressed) de compressor
are need ed to see thi s pi cture.
120°
hold
steady
OH
120°
Qu ickTime™ and a
TIFF (Uncompressed) de compressor
are need ed to see thi s pi cture.
hold
steady
Qu ickTi me™ and a
TIFF (Uncompressed) decompressor
are nee ded to see this p icture.
120°
hold
steady
Qu ickTime™ and a
TIFF (Uncompressed) de co mpressor
are need ed to see th is pi cture.
hold
steady
43
44. Cyclic Forms of Carbohydrates: Furanose Forms.
O
H+
+
R1
H
R2OH
HO OR2
R1
H+, R2OH
H
R1
hemiacetal
O
OH
(Ch. 17.8)
H
acetal
OR
OH
H
H
R2O OR2
O
cyclic hemiacetal
H
H+, ROH
Ch. 25.13
O
mixed acetal (glycoside)
44
45. In the case of carbohydrates, cyclization to the hemiacet
creates a new chiral center.
* CHO
H
H
H
OH
OH
CH2OH
OH
O
H
H
OH
H
OH
H
*
H
H
O
H
+
H
OH
OH
OH
H
*
D-erythrose
Converting Fischer Projections to Haworth formulas
45
47. Cyclic Forms of Carbohydrates: Pyranose Forms.
H
5
H
CHO
H
H
H
H
4
1
2
HO
OH
3
H H H
OH
H
4
OH
H
5
H
HO
5
4
OH
H
1
H
3
OH
OH
OH
new chiral
center
1
2
3
HO
H
O
H
H
4
1
2
3
5
H
O
H
HO
H
H
OH
CHO
H OH OH OH
H
H
5
H
OH
H
H
4
D-ribose
OH
HO
HO
O
H
H
1
2
3
OH
OH
HO
O
H
H
4
1
2
3
H
H
H
5
OH
OH
ribopyranose
6
CH2OH
OH
H
H
4
OH H
HO
2
6
5
1
CHO
H
HO
H
HOH2C
6
2
3
HOH2C H OH H
4
OH
HO
5
H
D-glucose
H
5
4
3
H OH H
2
OH
4
HO
OH
1
H
3
H
OH
H
6
H
OH
1
3
OH
H
O
CH2OH
O
H
H
OH
5
OH
new chiral
center
1
CHO
6 CH
2OH
OH
5
H
4
H
OH
HO
3
H
6
H
H
1
H
2
OH
O
4
HO
CH2OH
O
H
H
OH
5
3
H
H
1
2
OH
OH
glucopyranose
47
48. Two types of pyranose form
Chair form
Boat form
48
49. CHAIR form is thermodynamically more
stable
Substituents on the ring carbons may be either axial (ax),
projecting parallel to the vertical axis through the ring, or
equatorial (eq), projecting roughly perpendicular to this
axis.
Two conformers such are these are not readily
Interconvertible without breaking the ring. However, when
the molecule is ―stretched‖ (by atomic force microscopy),
an input of about 46 kJ of energy per mole of sugar can
force the interconversion of chair forms.
Generally, substituents in the equatorial positions are
less sterically hindered by neighboring substituents,
and conformers with bulky substituents in equatorial
positions are favored.
• Another conformation, the “boat” is seen only in
derivatives with very bulky substituents.
50. Mutarotation and the Anomeric Effect. The hemiacetal
or hemiketal carbon of the cyclic form of carbohydrates is the
anomeric carbon. Carbohydrate isomers that differ only in the
stereochemistry of the anomeric carbon are called anomers.
Mutarotation: The - and -anomers are in equilibrium, and
interconvert through the open form. The pure anomers can be
isolated by crystallization. When the pure anomers are dissolved
in water they undergo mutarotation, the process by which they
return to an equilibrium mixture of the anomer.
HOH2C
HO
HO
H
HO
H
H
CHO
OH
H
OH
OH
CH2OH
D-glucose
O
HO
H
OH
Trans
HOH2C
H
O
O
-D-Glucopyranose (64%)
( -anomer: C1-OH and
CH2OH are cis)
H
OH
HO
HO
HO
HO
HOH2C
HO
HO
Cis
HOH2C
OH
HO
HO
O
H
HO
OH
-D-Glucopyranose (36%)
( -anomer: C1-OH and
CH2OH are trans)
50
52. Epimers:
• Two monosaccharides differ only in the
configuration around one specific carbon
atom.
• The D-glucose and D-mannose are
epimers with respect to carbon atom 2,
• D-glucose and D-galactose are epimers
with respect to carbon atom 4.
53.
54. Aldose-Ketose isomerism:
Two monosaccharides have the same
molecular formulae but differ in their
functionl groups.
• one has an aldehyde group (aldose e.g.
glucose)
• the other has a ketone group (Ketose e.g.
fructose).
57. 1-Pentoses:
* -D-ribose is a structural element of ribonucleic
acid (RNA)and coenzymes e.g. ATP, NAD,
NADP and others. D-ribose-phosphate and Dribulose-5-phosphate are formed from glucose in
the body (HMS).
* 2-deoxy D-ribose enters in the structure of DNA.
*D-lyxose: constituent of lyxoflavin in human
myocardium.Lot of experiments are going to
establish it as a potent myocardial infarction
marker.
58. 2-Hexoses:
1- D-glucose (grape sugar, Dextrose as Dglucose is dextrorotatory ).
• It is the sugar carried by the blood
(normal plasma level 70-100 mg/dL) and
the principal one used by the tissues.
• It is found in fruit juices
• obtained by hydrolysis of starch, cane
sugar, maltose and lactose.
59. 2- D-Fructose (honey sugar = levulose as
D-fructose is levorotatory).
• It is found in fruit juices (fruit sugar )
• Obtained from sucrose by hydrolysis.
• It is present in the semen in pyranose form
3- D-galactose:
• It is a constituent of galactolipids and
glycoprotein in cell membranes and
extracellular matrix.
61. Iodocompounds
Glucose when heated with conc. Hydroiodic
acid loses all its oxygen and converted to
Iodohexane.
This suggests that glucose has no branched
chain.
Glucose
conc.HI
Iodohexane
62. Ester Formation
The – OH groups of monosaccharides
can form esters with acids (phosphate
& sulfate).
Phosphate esters:
Glucose – 1 – phosphate
Glucose – 6 – phosphate
Sulfate esters:
Galactose – 3 – sulfate
62
64. Sugar as reducing agent
The monosaccharides and most of the disaccharides
are rather strong reducing agents, particularly at high
pH.
At alkaline pH aldehyde or keto group tautomerizes
to form highly reactive ENEDIOL group. This group
has strong reducing property.
H
C
OH
C
R
OH
1,2 enediol form
64
65. Trommer’s test-precursor of
BENEDICT’S test
CuSO4 + 2NaOH
Cu(OH)2 + Na2SO4
(bluish white)
2Cu(OH)2
2 CuOH + H2O + O
Cu2O + H2O
(red)
Trommer’s test is not convenient enough and later
Benedict’s test replaced it.
65
66. Benedict’s Reagent
(blue)
Copper(I) oxide
(red-orange ppt)
Benedict’s reagent contains CuSO4,sodium carbonate
and sodium citrate.
Ammoniac silver nitrate solution may be reduced to
metallic silver, producing a mirror-TOLLEN’s Test
Alkaline Bismuth solution, known as Nylander’s solution,
deposits black metallic bismuth on reduction.
Picric acid in alkaline medium is reduced to picramic
acid. Color changes from yellowish orange to mahogany
red.
In acid solution sugar reduces less vigorously.Barfoed’s
test utilizes this fact for distinguishing monosaccharides
66
67. Reaction with strong alkalis
The sugar caramelises and produces a
series of decomposition products,yellow
and brown pigments develop,salts may
form, many double bonds are formed
between C-atoms.
67
68. Action of strong acid on
monosaccharides
With conc. Mineral acids the
monosaccharides get decomposed.
Pentoses yield cyclic aldehyde
‘furfural’.
Hexoses are decomposed to
‘hydroxymethyl furfural’ which
decomposes further to produce
laevulinic acid,CO,CO2
68
69. The furfural products can condense with certain organic
phenols to form compounds having characteristic color.
It forms the basis of certain tests used for detection of
sugars.
Molisch’s Test: With alpha-naphthol (in alcoholic
solution)gives purple ring. A sensitive reaction but not
specific. It is used as Group test of carbohydrate.
Seliwanoff’s test:With resorcinol, a cherry red colour
is produced. It is characteristic of D-fructose.
Other tests are anthrone test, Bial-orcinol test
69
70. OSAZONE formation
Emil Fischer done this job to detect
various sugars.
Used to differentiate simple sugar by their varied
form of osazone and rate of osazone formation.
PREPARATION: they are obtained by adding a
mixture of phenylhydrazine hydrochloride and sodium
acetate to the sugar solution and heating in boiling
water bath for 30 to 45 mins.The solution is allowed
to cool slowly by itself.crystals are formed .A
coverslip preparation is made on a clean slide and
seen under microscope.
70
73. Principle
Free carbonyl group of sugars react eith
phenylhydrazine to form
phenylhydrazone
With excess phenylhydrazine, the
adjacent C-atom of carbonyl group
react with phenylhydrazine to form
yellow compounds called osazone.
73
76. Oxidation of sugar
1. Aldonic acid: oxidation of an aldoses with Br2-water
converts the aldehyde group to a carboxyllic group
D-Glucose
D-gluconic acid
2.Saccharic acid or aldaric acid: oxidation of aldoses
with conc.HNO3 under proper conditions convert both
aldehyde and primary alcohol group to –COOH
group,forming dibasic sugar acids, the Saccharic acid or
aldaric acid.
D-Glucose
D-Glucaric acid
D-Galactose
D-Mucic acid
76
77. 3. Uronic acid: When only the primary alcohol
group of an aldose is oxidized to –COOH group,
without oxidation of aldehyde group, a uronic
acid is formed.
D-Glucose
D-Glucuronic acid
D-galactose
D-Galacturonic acid
Due to presence of free –CHO group they
exert reducing action.
Biomedical importance
77
78. Reduction
Carbonyl groups can be reduced to alcohols (catalytic
hydrogenation)
H
O
R
H
[H]
H
OH
R
Sweet but slowly absorbed
Glucose is reduced to sorbitol (glucitol)
Xylose can be reduced to xylitol
Once reduced – less reactive; not absorbed
79.
Glceraldehyde & dihydroxyacetone to
Glycerol.
Ribose to Ribitol.
Glucose to Sorbitol.
Galactose to Dulcitol.
Mannose to Mannitol.
Fructose to Sorbitol & Mannitol
79
80.
Glycerol
Ribitol
Present in the structure of many lipids.
Enters in the structure of Riboflavin.
Myo-inositol
One of the isomers of inositol.
A hydroxylated cyclohexane.
Present in the structure of a phospholipid
termed phosphatidyl inositol.
80
81. Interconversion of sugars
Glucose, Fructose and Mannose differ
from each other only arrond C1- C3.So
they are interconvertible in weak
alkaline solution such as Ba(OH)2 or
Ca(OH)2.
This is due to same ENEDIOL formation during
tautomerization.
This is called Lobry de Bruyn-Van Ekenstein
Reaction
81
84. L – Ascorbic acid
O=C
HO – C
HO – C
O
H–C
HO – C - H
CH2OH
Due to lack of
enzymes it becomes a VITAMIN
for human beings
Glucuronic acid is reduced to L-Gulonic acid and then
converted through L-Gulonolactone to L-Ascorbic acid
in plants and most higher animals.
84
85. Phytic acid
The hexaphosphoric ester of inositol.
Forms insoluble salts with Ca2+, Mg2+,
Fe2+ & Cu2+
Prevent their absorption from diet in the
small intestine.
So it is better to avoid maize and legumes
in diet of anaemic patient with iron rich
diet or haematinic drugs.
85
88. Aminosugars
Formed from the corresponding
monosaccharide by replacing the –OH
group at C2 with an amino (NH2) group.
Are important constituents of GAGs &
some types of glycolipids eg gangliosides.
Are conjugated with acetic acid &/or
sulfate to form different derivatives.
88
90. Amino sugar
Glycosylamine
• Anomeric –OH group is
replaced by –NH2
• e.g glucosylamine
Glycosamine
• -OH group attached to
carbon atom other than
the anomeric one.
• e.g glucosamine
90
92. Aminosugars Acids
• Are formed of 6-C aminosugars linked
to 3-C acid.
• Examples:
– Neuraminic acid: (Mannosamine +
Pyruvic acid)
– N-acetylneuraminic acid (Sialic acid)
– Muramic acid (glucosamine + lactic acid)
92
93. Sialic Acid (NANA)
Enters in the structure of may glycolipids &
glycoproteins.
Forms an important structure of cell
membrane & has many important functions:
It is important for cell recognition & interaction.
It is an important constituent of cell membrane
receptors.
It plays an important role in cell membrane
transport systems.
93
95. Glycosides
Formed by a reaction between the anomeric
carbon (in the form of hemiacetal or
hemiketal) with alcohols or phenols.
Are named according to the reacting sugar.
Any glycosidic linkage is named according to
the type of parent sugar eg
glucosidic, galactosidic or fructosidic linkages.
95
96. Types of Glycosides
Monosaccharide units may condense in the
form of di-, oligo- & polysaccharides where
the second sugar reacts as an alcohol &
condenses with the anomeric carbon by
removal of H2O.
A sugar may also condense with a nonsugar radical (aglycon)
Nucleoside: (pentose sugar + nitrogenous
base)
96
97.
98.
99.
100. Biomedically important
Glycosides
• Cardiac glycosides: obtained from
digitalis
• They all contain steroids as aglycone.
• Digitalis glycosides include digitoxin,
gitoxin, gitalin and digoxin
• Digoxin is class V antiarrhythmic drug
according to Vaughan Williams
classification.
• Used in supraventricular arrhythmia
100
101. • Contraindicated in ventricular tachycardia.
• Chemically,
Digitonin
4Galactose
+Xylose+digitogenin
(aglycone)
OUABAIN: It gains interest as class 1C
antiarrhythmic drug that inhibit active transport of
sodium in myocardium in vivo.
It prevents paroxysmal atrial fibrillation.
102. PHLORIDZIN:
Obtained from the root and bark of apple tree.
It blocks transport of sugar across mucosal
cells of small intestine and renal tubular
epithelium.
Displaces Na+ from the binding site of carrier
protein and prevents the binding of sugar
molecule and produces glycosuria.
STREPTOMYCIN , the well known antibiotic is
also a Glycoside.