Lipid metabolism is the synthesis and degradation of lipids in cells.
It involves the breakdown or storage of fats for energy and the synthesis of structural and functional lipids, such as those involved in the construction of cell membranes.
In animals, these fats are obtained from food or synthesized by the liver.
These are major source of energy for living organisms.
Supplying a huge array of metabolic intermediates for biosynthetic reactions.
The structural elements in cell coat or connective tissues.
Lipid metabolism entails the oxidation of fatty acids to either generate energy or synthesize new lipids from smaller constituent molecules. Lipid metabolism is associated with carbohydrate metabolism, as products of glucose (such as acetyl CoA) can be converted into lipids.
Are most abundantly distributed organic compounds.
70 kg man= protein weight constitute 12 kg
Skeleton and connective tissue contains half
Body protein and other half is intracellular.
Lipid metabolism is the synthesis and degradation of lipids in cells.
It involves the breakdown or storage of fats for energy and the synthesis of structural and functional lipids, such as those involved in the construction of cell membranes.
In animals, these fats are obtained from food or synthesized by the liver.
These are major source of energy for living organisms.
Supplying a huge array of metabolic intermediates for biosynthetic reactions.
The structural elements in cell coat or connective tissues.
Lipid metabolism entails the oxidation of fatty acids to either generate energy or synthesize new lipids from smaller constituent molecules. Lipid metabolism is associated with carbohydrate metabolism, as products of glucose (such as acetyl CoA) can be converted into lipids.
Are most abundantly distributed organic compounds.
70 kg man= protein weight constitute 12 kg
Skeleton and connective tissue contains half
Body protein and other half is intracellular.
24.1 Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates
24.2 Hormonal Control of Carbohydrate Metabolism
24.3 Glycogen Synthesis and Degradation
24.4 Gluconeogenesis
24.5 The Pentose Phosphate Pathway
24.6 Glycolysis
24.7 Terminology for Glucose Metabolic Pathways
24.8 The Citric Acid Cycle
24.9 The Electron Transport Chain
24.10 Oxidative Phosphorylation
24.11 ATP Production for the Complete Oxidation of Glucose
24.12 Importance of ATP
24.13 Non-ETC Oxygen-Consuming Reactions
24.14 B-Vitamins and Carbohydrate Metabolism
About carbohydrates, its types, physical and chemical properties, isomers and isomeric properties, important carbohydrates, medical use of some carbohydrates.
The brief classification, types, physical properties, chemical properties, mucopolysaccherides type, disorders related to GAG.
the Topic covered with the interest of MBBS, BDS, BPT, Nursing, Bsc and MSc Biochemistry and MLT students
This ppt explains the properties of monosaccharides, polysaccharides. the properties like mutarotation, reduction, optical activity, caramerlization, osazone is given in the ppt. Also the determination of ring size of the monosaccharide is explained/
nucleic acid, glucose, fructose, preparation of sucrose, monosaccahrides, disaccharides, pedptide bond, glycosidic linkage, gluconic acid, DNA, RNA, Structure of amines, zwitter ion of amino acids, fibrous and globular protein,denaturation of proteins, Chemical properties of glucose, alpha helix and beta folded structure, ring structure of glucose and fructose, biomolecules, polyhydroxy aldose, poly hydroxy ketose
Anti ulcer drugs and their Advance pharmacology ||
Anti-ulcer drugs are medications used to prevent and treat ulcers in the stomach and upper part of the small intestine (duodenal ulcers). These ulcers are often caused by an imbalance between stomach acid and the mucosal lining, which protects the stomach lining.
||Scope: Overview of various classes of anti-ulcer drugs, their mechanisms of action, indications, side effects, and clinical considerations.
The prostate is an exocrine gland of the male mammalian reproductive system
It is a walnut-sized gland that forms part of the male reproductive system and is located in front of the rectum and just below the urinary bladder
Function is to store and secrete a clear, slightly alkaline fluid that constitutes 10-30% of the volume of the seminal fluid that along with the spermatozoa, constitutes semen
A healthy human prostate measures (4cm-vertical, by 3cm-horizontal, 2cm ant-post ).
It surrounds the urethra just below the urinary bladder. It has anterior, median, posterior and two lateral lobes
It’s work is regulated by androgens which are responsible for male sex characteristics
Generalised disease of the prostate due to hormonal derangement which leads to non malignant enlargement of the gland (increase in the number of epithelial cells and stromal tissue)to cause compression of the urethra leading to symptoms (LUTS
These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a quick overview of physiological basis of a normal electrocardiogram.
Learning objectives:
1. Define an electrocardiogram (ECG) and electrocardiography
2. Describe how dipoles generated by the heart produce the waveforms of the ECG
3. Describe the components of a normal electrocardiogram of a typical bipolar leads (limb II)
4. Differentiate between intervals and segments
5. Enlist some common indications for obtaining an ECG
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 11, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 9, Human Physiology - From Cells to Systems, Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
3. Chapter 29, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
4. Electrocardiogram, StatPearls - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549803/
5. ECG in Medical Practice by ABM Abdullah, 4th edition
6. ECG Basics, http://www.nataliescasebook.com/tag/e-c-g-basics
MANAGEMENT OF ATRIOVENTRICULAR CONDUCTION BLOCK.pdfJim Jacob Roy
Cardiac conduction defects can occur due to various causes.
Atrioventricular conduction blocks ( AV blocks ) are classified into 3 types.
This document describes the acute management of AV block.
These simplified slides by Dr. Sidra Arshad present an overview of the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract.
Learning objectives:
1. Enlist the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract
2. Briefly explain how these functions are carried out
3. Discuss the significance of dead space
4. Differentiate between minute ventilation and alveolar ventilation
5. Describe the cough and sneeze reflexes
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 39, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 34, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 17, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
4. Non-respiratory functions of the lungs https://academic.oup.com/bjaed/article/13/3/98/278874
Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
New Directions in Targeted Therapeutic Approaches for Older Adults With Mantl...i3 Health
i3 Health is pleased to make the speaker slides from this activity available for use as a non-accredited self-study or teaching resource.
This slide deck presented by Dr. Kami Maddocks, Professor-Clinical in the Division of Hematology and
Associate Division Director for Ambulatory Operations
The Ohio State University Comprehensive Cancer Center, will provide insight into new directions in targeted therapeutic approaches for older adults with mantle cell lymphoma.
STATEMENT OF NEED
Mantle cell lymphoma (MCL) is a rare, aggressive B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) accounting for 5% to 7% of all lymphomas. Its prognosis ranges from indolent disease that does not require treatment for years to very aggressive disease, which is associated with poor survival (Silkenstedt et al, 2021). Typically, MCL is diagnosed at advanced stage and in older patients who cannot tolerate intensive therapy (NCCN, 2022). Although recent advances have slightly increased remission rates, recurrence and relapse remain very common, leading to a median overall survival between 3 and 6 years (LLS, 2021). Though there are several effective options, progress is still needed towards establishing an accepted frontline approach for MCL (Castellino et al, 2022). Treatment selection and management of MCL are complicated by the heterogeneity of prognosis, advanced age and comorbidities of patients, and lack of an established standard approach for treatment, making it vital that clinicians be familiar with the latest research and advances in this area. In this activity chaired by Michael Wang, MD, Professor in the Department of Lymphoma & Myeloma at MD Anderson Cancer Center, expert faculty will discuss prognostic factors informing treatment, the promising results of recent trials in new therapeutic approaches, and the implications of treatment resistance in therapeutic selection for MCL.
Target Audience
Hematology/oncology fellows, attending faculty, and other health care professionals involved in the treatment of patients with mantle cell lymphoma (MCL).
Learning Objectives
1.) Identify clinical and biological prognostic factors that can guide treatment decision making for older adults with MCL
2.) Evaluate emerging data on targeted therapeutic approaches for treatment-naive and relapsed/refractory MCL and their applicability to older adults
3.) Assess mechanisms of resistance to targeted therapies for MCL and their implications for treatment selection
Lung Cancer: Artificial Intelligence, Synergetics, Complex System Analysis, S...Oleg Kshivets
RESULTS: Overall life span (LS) was 2252.1±1742.5 days and cumulative 5-year survival (5YS) reached 73.2%, 10 years – 64.8%, 20 years – 42.5%. 513 LCP lived more than 5 years (LS=3124.6±1525.6 days), 148 LCP – more than 10 years (LS=5054.4±1504.1 days).199 LCP died because of LC (LS=562.7±374.5 days). 5YS of LCP after bi/lobectomies was significantly superior in comparison with LCP after pneumonectomies (78.1% vs.63.7%, P=0.00001 by log-rank test). AT significantly improved 5YS (66.3% vs. 34.8%) (P=0.00000 by log-rank test) only for LCP with N1-2. Cox modeling displayed that 5YS of LCP significantly depended on: phase transition (PT) early-invasive LC in terms of synergetics, PT N0—N12, cell ratio factors (ratio between cancer cells- CC and blood cells subpopulations), G1-3, histology, glucose, AT, blood cell circuit, prothrombin index, heparin tolerance, recalcification time (P=0.000-0.038). Neural networks, genetic algorithm selection and bootstrap simulation revealed relationships between 5YS and PT early-invasive LC (rank=1), PT N0—N12 (rank=2), thrombocytes/CC (3), erythrocytes/CC (4), eosinophils/CC (5), healthy cells/CC (6), lymphocytes/CC (7), segmented neutrophils/CC (8), stick neutrophils/CC (9), monocytes/CC (10); leucocytes/CC (11). Correct prediction of 5YS was 100% by neural networks computing (area under ROC curve=1.0; error=0.0).
CONCLUSIONS: 5YS of LCP after radical procedures significantly depended on: 1) PT early-invasive cancer; 2) PT N0--N12; 3) cell ratio factors; 4) blood cell circuit; 5) biochemical factors; 6) hemostasis system; 7) AT; 8) LC characteristics; 9) LC cell dynamics; 10) surgery type: lobectomy/pneumonectomy; 11) anthropometric data. Optimal diagnosis and treatment strategies for LC are: 1) screening and early detection of LC; 2) availability of experienced thoracic surgeons because of complexity of radical procedures; 3) aggressive en block surgery and adequate lymph node dissection for completeness; 4) precise prediction; 5) adjuvant chemoimmunoradiotherapy for LCP with unfavorable prognosis.
Pulmonary Thromboembolism - etilogy, types, medical- Surgical and nursing man...VarunMahajani
Disruption of blood supply to lung alveoli due to blockage of one or more pulmonary blood vessels is called as Pulmonary thromboembolism. In this presentation we will discuss its causes, types and its management in depth.
2. Definition
Carbohydrates may be defined as
polyhydroxy aldehydes or
ketones or compounds which
produce them on hydrolysis.
Formula = (C.H2O)n
3.
4.
5.
6. Biomedical Importance
Most abundant dietary source of energy. Brain cells
and RBCs are almost wholly dependent on
carbohydrates as the energy source.
Also serve as storage form of energy –Glycogen.
Carbohydrates are precursors for many organic
compounds (fats, amino acids).
Participate in the structure of cell membrane &
cellular functions (cell growth, adhesion and
fertilization).
Certain carbohydrate derivatives are used as
drugs, like cardiac glycosides / antibiotics.
DM (diabetes mellitus)
20. Asymmetric carbon atom
Asymmetric carbon means that four
different groups are attached to the same
carbon.
The reference molecule is glyceraldehyde
which has a single asymmetric carbon
atom.
The number of possible stereoisomer
depends on the number of asymmetric
carbon atoms by the formula 2
n
where n is
the number of asymmetric carbon atoms.
21. Reference Carbon Atom of
Sugars
All monosaccharide can be considered as molecules
derived from glyceraldehyde by successive addition of
carbon atoms. Therefore, penultimate carbon atom is the
reference carbon atom for naming the mirror images
22. D and L isomerism(Enantiomers)
• D-sugars are naturally occurring sugars and
body can metabolize only D-sugars.
• D-glucose is dextrorotatory. In clinical practice,
it is often called as dextrose
23. Optical isomerism(d and l)
The presence of asymmetrical carbon atom
causes optical activity. When a beam of
plane-polarized light is passed through a
solution of carbohydrates, it will rotate the
light either to right or to left.
Right = dextrorotatory (+) (d)
Left = levorotatory (-) (l)
D-glucose is dextrorotatory but D-fructose
is levorotatory
Equimolecular mixture of optical isomers
has no net rotation (racemic mixture)
24. Epimers
When sugars are different from one
another, only in configuration with
regard to a single carbon atom,
other than the reference carbon
atom, they are called Epimers.
29. The 1st carbon, aldehyde group is
condensed with the hydroxyl group of the
5th carbon to form a ring. Ring structure
represents hemi acetal form.
Glucose exists in biological systems not
as a rectangle, but as a pyranose ring.
b-D-glucopyranose is the predominant
form (63%).
30. D-glucose has two anomers, alpha and
beta varieties.
These anomers are produced by the
spatial configuration with reference to the
first carbon atom in aldoses and second
carbon atom in ketoses.
These carbon atoms are known as
anomeric carbon atoms.
33. Mutarotation
When D glucose is crystallized at
room temperature, and a fresh
solution is prepared, its specific
rotation of polarized light is +112o
;
but after 12–18 hours it changes
to +52.5o
.
This change in rotation with time
is called mutarotation.
37. Sucrose
• It is the sweetening agent known as cane
sugar.
• It is present in sugarcane and various fruits.
38. Hydrolysis of sucrose (optical rotation
+66.5°) will produce one molecule of
glucose (+52.5°) and one molecule of
fructose (–92°).
Therefore, the products will change the
dextrorotation to levorotation, or the plane
of rotation is inverted.
Equimolecular mixture of glucose and
fructose thus formed is called invert sugar.
The enzyme producing hydrolysis of sucrose
is called sucrase or invertase.
Honey contains invert sugar.
Invert sugar is sweeter than sucrose.
46. Principle
The principle of Benedict's test is that
when reducing sugars are heated in the
presence of an alkali(pH 10.6), they get
converted to powerful reducing
compounds known as enediols.
Enediols reduce the cupric ions (Cu2+)
present in the Benedict's reagent to
cuprous ions (Cu+) which get precipitated
as insoluble red copper oxide.
47.
48. Detect the presence of glucose in urine
(glucosuria).
It is a standard laboratory test employed
for follow-up of diabetes mellitus in PHC.
Benedict's reagent contains sodium
carbonate, copper sulfate and sodium
citrate
Any sugar with free aldehyde/keto group
will reduce the Benedict's reagent.
Therefore, this is not specific for glucose.
49. Carbohydrates giving positive
Benedict ’ s test:
Glucose, Fructose, Galactose
Lactose, Maltose
Sucrose ???????
Starches do not react or react very poorly
with Benedict's reagent, due to the
relatively small number of reducing sugar
moieties, which occur only at the ends of
carbohydrate chains.
50. Non-Carbohydrates giving
positive Benedict ’ s test
High concentration of Uric acid and
Ketones
Homogentisic acid (solution turns black
due to black colored oxidized
homogentisic acid)
Vitamin C (even without Boiling)
Certain drugs like aspirin, cephalosporins
53. Reagents for this test are present on a strip
of paper in solid form.
When the paper is wet with urine, the
reagents dissolve in urine on paper and
react with glucose in urine.
The darkness of color can be correlated
with amount of glucose present in urine.
Because Glucose oxidase enzyme can act
only on beta-D Glucose, other reducing
substances do not give this test positive.
54. Thus, compounds like Vitamin C,
Aspirin utilize H2O2 produced in the
reaction.
Due to lack of H2O2, Peroxidase can
not oxidize dye. Thus, glucose may
not be detected even if present, if
urine contain Vitamin C or Aspirin in
large amount. This phenomenon is
called false negative result.
55.
56. Osazone Formation
All reducing sugars will form
osazones with excess of phenyl
hydrazine when kept at boiling
temperature.
Glucose, Galactose and Fructose will
produce the same needle-shaped
crystals. Why?
57.
58. Molisch’s test
All carbohydrates when treated with conc.
sulphuric acid undergo dehydration to
give fufural compounds. These
compounds condense with Alpha-napthol
to form colored compounds.
Molish test is given by sugars with at
least five carbons because it involves
furfural derivatives, which are five carbon
compounds.
60. Fehling’s test
Same principle as benedicts test
Fehling’s A contains 7% copper
sulphate and Fehling’s B contains
sodium potassium tartarate.
61. Barfoed’s test
This test is based on the same principle as
Benedict’s test.
But, the test medium is acidic.
In acidic medium (pH 4.6)
monosaccharides react faster than
disaccharide.
Barfoed’s reagent contains copper acetate
in glacial acetic acid.
63. Seliwanoff’s test
Seliwanoff’s test is a chemical test
which distinguishes between aldose
and ketose sugars.
Ketohexoses like fructose on
treatment with HCl form 5-
hydroxymethylfurfural, which on
condensation with resorcinol gives a
cherry red complex.
65. Oxidation
The glucuronic acid is used by the body for
conjugation with insoluble molecules to make them
soluble in water for detoxification purpose and also
for synthesis of heteropolysaccharides.
66. Reduction to Form Alcohols
When treated with reducing agents
hydrogen can reduce sugars. Aldose yields
corresponding alcohol.
Glucose is reduced to sorbitol
mannose to mannitol
fructose becomes sorbitol and mannitol
Galactose is reduced to dulcitol and
ribose to ribitol.
67. Significance of reduction
Sorbitol, mannitol and dulcitol are
used to identify bacterial colonies.
Mannitol is also used to reduce
intracranial tension by forced
diuresis.
The osmotic effect of sorbitol produces
changes in tissues when they
accumulate in abnormal amounts, e.g.
cataract of lens.
70. Lactulose
• Lactulose is also known as beta-D-
galactopyranosyl-D-fructofuranose.
• Used in constipation
71. Glycosides
The hydroxyl group of anomeric carbon of a
carbohydrate can join with a hydroxyl group
of another carbohydrate or some other
compound to form a glycoside and the bond
so formed is known as glycosidic bond.
eg. R-OH + HO-R’ R-O-R' + H2O
The non-carbohydrate moiety is known as
aglycone –phenol, sterol, glycerol and
methanol.
Glycosidic bond can be N-linked or, O-
linked.
72.
73.
74. Biomedical importance of
glycosides
Cardiac Glycosides –Digoxin, Digitoxin
◦ Used in cardiac insufficiency.
◦ Stimulate cardiac muscle contraction.
◦ Contain steroids as aglycone
component.
Ouabain –Sodium pump inhibitor.
75. Streptomycin
◦ Antibiotic
◦ Given in Tuberculosis
Phloridzin
◦ cause renal damage, glycosuria.
◦ Blocks the transport of sugar across the
mucosal cells of small intestine & also
renal tubular epithelium.
76. Formation of Esters
Esterification of alcoholic groups of
monosaccharides with phosphoric
acid is a common reaction in
metabolism.
Examples :Glucose-6-phosphate, and
Glucose-1-phosphate.
ATP donates the phosphate moiety.
77.
78. Amino sugars
Amino groups may be substituted for hydroxyl
groups of sugars to give rise to amino sugars
79. Importance
Amino sugars Found in
Glucosamine Hyaluronic acid, heparin and
blood group substances
Galactosamine Chondroitin sulphate of
cartilage, bone and tendons.
Mannosamine constituent of glycoproteins
N-acetylglucosamine
(GluNac) and N-
acetyl galactosamine
(GalNac)
constituents of
glycoproteins,
Mucopolysaccharide and cell
membrane antigens.
83. Starch
It is the reserve carbohydrate of plant
kingdom
Sources: Potatoes, cereals (rice,
wheat) and other food grains.
Starch is composed of amylose and
amylopectin.
84.
85. Amylose is made up of glucose units
with alpha-1,4 glycosidic linkages to
form an unbranched long chain. Water
soluble.
The insoluble part absorbs water and
forms paste like gel; this is called
amylopectin.
Amylopectin is also made up of
glucose units, but is highly branched.
The branching points are made by
alpha-1,6 linkage
86. Iodine test for starch
Starch will form a blue colored
complex with iodine; this color
disappears on heating and reappears
when cooled. This is a sensitive test
for starch.
Starch is nonreducing because the
free sugar groups are negligible in
number.
87. Hydrolysis of starch
Amylodextrin = violet color with
iodine and is non-reducing.
Erythrodextrin = red color with
iodine and mildly reduce the
Benedict's solution.
Achrodextrins = no color with
iodine, reducing)
Maltose = (no color with iodine, but
powerfully reducing)
Short
time to
long time
89. It is the reserve carbohydrate in animals.
It is stored in liver and muscle.
Liver glycogen stores increase during the
well-fed state , and are depleted during a
fast.
Glycogen is composed of glucose units
joined by alpha-1,4 links in straight
chains. It also has alpha-1,6 glycosidic
linkages at the branching points.
Glycogen is more branched and more
compact than amylopectin.
91. Cellulose
It is made up of glucose units combined
with beta-1,4 linkages.
It has a straight line structure, with no
branching points.
Beta-1,4 bridges are hydrolyzed by the
enzyme cellobiase. But this enzyme is
absent in animal and human digestive
system, and hence cellulose cannot be
digested.
92. Importance
Fiber can absorb 10–15 times its own
weight in water, drawing fluid into
the lumen of the intestine
Increasing bowel motility
1.Decrease the risk for constipation
It is a major constituent of fiber, the
nondigestable carbohydrate.
94. Delays gastric emptying and can result in a
sensation of fullness
4. Reduced peaks of blood glucose
following a meal
Can bind various toxic substances
including carcinogens & eliminate them in
faecal matter
3.Decreases chances of some cancers
95. Inulin
It is a long chain homoglycan composed
of D-fructose units with repeating beta-1,2
linkages.
It is the reserve carbohydrate present in
various bulbs and tubers, such as onion,
garlic.
It is clinically used to find renal
clearance value and glomerular
filtration rate.
96. Dextrans
These are highly branched homopolymers
of glucose units with 1-6, 1-4 and 1-3
linkages. They are produced by micro-
organisms.
Since they will not easily go out of
vascular compartment, they are used for
intravenous infusion as plasma volume
expander for treatment of hypovolemic
shock.
97. Dextrose, Dextrin and Dextran
are different
D-glucose is otherwise called Dextrose, a
term often used in bed-side medicine, e.g.
dextrose drip.
Dextrin is the partially digested product of
starch.
Dextran is high molecular weight
carbohydrate, synthesized by bacteria.
98. Chitin
It is present in exoskeletons of
insects.
It is composed of units of N-
acetylglucosamine with beta-1,4
glycosidic linkages.
100. Agar
Agar = The linear polysaccharide Agarose
+ agaropectin
It is dissolved in water at 100ºC, which
upon cooling sets into a gel. Agarose is
used as matrix for electrophoresis.
Agar cannot be digested by bacteria and
hence used widely as a supporting agent to
culture bacterial colonies.
102. Because of their large number of negative
charges, these heteropolysaccharide chains
tend to be extended in solution. They repel
each other, and are surrounded by a shell
of water molecules. When brought
together, they “slip” past each other.
This produces the “slippery” consistency
of mucous secretions and synovial fluid.
107. Hyaluronidase
Breaks b(1-4 linkages) in hyaluronic acid.
Present in high concentration in testes,
seminal fluid, and in certain snake and insect
venoms.
Hyaluronidase of semen clears the gel
(hyaluronic acid) around the ovum allowing a
better penetration of sperm into the ovum.
Serves important role in fertilization
Hyaluronidase of bacteria helps their invasion
into the animal tissues.
111. Heparin
It contains repeating units of sulphated
glucosamine → alpha-1, 4-L-iduronic acid
or glucuronic acid → and so on
112. Heparin is an anticoagulant( prevents
blood clotting).
Heparin helps in the release of the enzyme
lipoprotein lipase which helps in clearing
the turbidity of lipemic plasma.
Lipoprotein lipase breaks TG in glycerol
and FFA.
116. Glycoprotein Major function
Glycophorin glycoprotein of
erythrocytes cell
membrane
Collagen Structure of cartilage
and bone
Ceruloplasmin Transport protein
Immunoglobulin Defense against
infection
Intrinsic factor Absorption of vitamin
B12
Fibrinogen Blood clotting