This document outlines key concepts about atomic structure including:
1) The structure of atoms consists of a nucleus containing protons and neutrons surrounded by electrons. Protons are positively charged, neutrons have no charge, and electrons are negatively charged.
2) Atomic number refers to the number of protons in an atom. Mass number refers to the total number of protons and neutrons. Atomic symbols represent these numbers.
3) Electrons surround the nucleus in fixed shells. The number of electrons in each shell is limited. The arrangement of electrons is known as the electronic structure or electron configuration.
Radioactivity refers to the particles which are emitted from nuclei as a result of nuclear instability. Because the nucleus experiences the intense conflict between the two strongest forces in nature, it should not be surprising that there are many nuclear isotopes which are unstable and emit some kind of radiation.
Contents of this slide-share presentation:
Understanding decay concepts
Facts about Radioactive decay
Types of radioactive decay
Understanding Half-life concepts
Graphing and calculating Half-life
Using count rate to study and analyse radioactive decay
Radioactivity refers to the particles which are emitted from nuclei as a result of nuclear instability. Because the nucleus experiences the intense conflict between the two strongest forces in nature, it should not be surprising that there are many nuclear isotopes which are unstable and emit some kind of radiation.
Contents of this slide-share presentation:
Understanding decay concepts
Facts about Radioactive decay
Types of radioactive decay
Understanding Half-life concepts
Graphing and calculating Half-life
Using count rate to study and analyse radioactive decay
Types Of nuclear reactions. Nuclear Fission Reaction. Nuclear Fusion Reaction. Difference between nuclear fusion and nuclear fusion. Light Element Fission. Light Element Fusion. Nuclear Fusion on Sun. Beta Decay process happening in sun. A short explanation of D–D reaction, D–He(3) reaction, D–T reaction. the outstanding problem is the tritium supply. Binding energy curve.Energy partition in process of fusion reactions. How then can light element fusion reactions be initiated? A major explanation for all these above steps. A complete explanation by Syed Hammad Ali Gillani.
Introduction to the structure of atoms from the view of a chemist - what are neutrons protons and electrons and how are they organized ? How are electrons organized - in 3 quantum numbers. Experimental evidence from the Bohr model.
In this presentation you will know what is magnetism and types of magnetism like Para magnetism, diamagnetism and ferromagnetism with their examples also what are requirements of magnets with their types like permanent magnets , resistive and superconducting magnets with their advantage and disadvantages
Types Of nuclear reactions. Nuclear Fission Reaction. Nuclear Fusion Reaction. Difference between nuclear fusion and nuclear fusion. Light Element Fission. Light Element Fusion. Nuclear Fusion on Sun. Beta Decay process happening in sun. A short explanation of D–D reaction, D–He(3) reaction, D–T reaction. the outstanding problem is the tritium supply. Binding energy curve.Energy partition in process of fusion reactions. How then can light element fusion reactions be initiated? A major explanation for all these above steps. A complete explanation by Syed Hammad Ali Gillani.
Introduction to the structure of atoms from the view of a chemist - what are neutrons protons and electrons and how are they organized ? How are electrons organized - in 3 quantum numbers. Experimental evidence from the Bohr model.
In this presentation you will know what is magnetism and types of magnetism like Para magnetism, diamagnetism and ferromagnetism with their examples also what are requirements of magnets with their types like permanent magnets , resistive and superconducting magnets with their advantage and disadvantages
Explains the structure of the atom and its discovery
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Contents
The Atom
Materials Used in Electronics
Current in Semiconductors
N-Type and P-Type Semiconductors
The PN Junctions
Diode Operation, Voltage-Current (V-I) Characteristics
Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) Structure, Operation, and Characteristics and Parameters
Junction Field Effect Transistors (JFETs) Structure, Characteristics and Parameters and Biasing
Metal Oxide Semiconductor FET (MOSFET) Structure, Characteristics and Parameters and Biasing
The ATOM: Learning Objectives
Describe the structure of an atom
Discuss the Bohr model of an atom
Define electron, proton, neutron, and nucleus
Define atomic number
Discuss electron shells and orbits
Explain energy levels
Define valence electron
Discuss ionization
Define free electron and ion
Discuss the basic concept of the quantum model of the atom
Discuss insulators, conductors, and semiconductors and how they differ
Define the core of an atom
Describe the carbon atom
Name two types each of semiconductors, conductors, and insulators
Explain the band gap
Define valence band and conduction band
Compare a semiconductor atom to a conductor atom
Discuss silicon and germanium atoms
Explain covalent bonds
Define crystal
Describe how current is produced in a semiconductor
Discuss conduction electrons and holes
Explain an electron-hole pair
Discuss recombination
Explain electron and hole current
Describe the properties of n-type and p-type semiconductors
Define doping
Explain how n-type semiconductors are formed
Describe a majority carrier and minority carrier in n-type material
Explain how p-type semiconductors are formed
Describe a majority carrier and minority carrier in p-type material
Describe how a pn junction is formed
Discuss diffusion across a pn junction
Explain the formation of the depletion region
Define barrier potential and discuss its significance
State the values of barrier potential in silicon and germanium
Discuss energy diagrams
Define energy hill
Unit 8 - Information and Communication Technology (Paper I).pdfThiyagu K
This slides describes the basic concepts of ICT, basics of Email, Emerging Technology and Digital Initiatives in Education. This presentations aligns with the UGC Paper I syllabus.
A review of the growth of the Israel Genealogy Research Association Database Collection for the last 12 months. Our collection is now passed the 3 million mark and still growing. See which archives have contributed the most. See the different types of records we have, and which years have had records added. You can also see what we have for the future.
Introduction to AI for Nonprofits with Tapp NetworkTechSoup
Dive into the world of AI! Experts Jon Hill and Tareq Monaur will guide you through AI's role in enhancing nonprofit websites and basic marketing strategies, making it easy to understand and apply.
June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
A workshop hosted by the South African Journal of Science aimed at postgraduate students and early career researchers with little or no experience in writing and publishing journal articles.
1. LEARNING OUTCOMES
Describe the structure of atoms of atomic numbers
1 to 20 using illustrations
State the properties of electrons, protons and
neutrons
Define atomic number and mass number
Define relative atomic mass
Interpret notations of the form
Define isotopy
List the uses of isotopes
Predict the likelihood of an atom forming an ionic
or covalent bond based on atomic structure
Atomic Structure
Chapter 2
Xa
b
2. Structure of Atoms
An atom is made up of a dense
centre called the nucleus, and a
cloud of electrons surrounding it.
The nucleus has two types of
particles called protons and
neutrons.
The protons are positively charged.
The neutrons have no charge (neutral).
Atomic Structure
Chapter 2
3. Structure of Atoms
The electrons are negatively
charged.
The number of protons is
always equal to the number
of electrons, so an atom is
electrically neutral.
The relative mass and charge
of each particle is as shown
in the table.
Particle Relative
mass
Relative
electric
charge
Proton 1 1+
Neutron 1 0
Electron ≈ 0 1−
Atomic Structure
Chapter 2
__1_
1 836
4. Proton number and Nucleon number
The proton number of an
atom is equal to the number
of protons in the atom.
The proton number is also
called the atomic number.
The proton number of the atom shown above is 3.
Atomic Structure
Chapter 2
5. Nucleon number
The nucleon number of an
atom is equal to the total
number of protons and
neutrons in the atom.
The nucleon number is also
called the mass number since
the protons and neutrons give
the atom its mass.
The nucleon number for the atom shown is 6.
Atomic Structure
Chapter2
6. Atomic symbol
The structure of an atom can be written in symbol form as:
Nucleon
number
Proton
number
E.g. What are the atomic particles found in
an atom of fluorine, 19
9 F ?
ANSWER: 9 protons
9 electrons
10 neutrons (19 – 9 =10 )
Atomic Structure
Chapter 2
X
a
b
7. Electron arrangement
The electrons surround the nucleus like a cloud and
move around it in fixed orbits or shells.
Each shell is numbered 1, 2, 3, 4 and so on, going
outwards from the nucleus.
Each shell can hold a certain maximum number of
electrons.
The maximum number of electrons each shell can hold
is given by:
1st
shell = 2
2nd
shell = 8
3rd
shell = 8 ( for the first 20 elements in the Periodic Table )
Atomic Structure
Chapter 2
8. Electron arrangement
The electron arrangement
of an atom is also called
its electronic structure.
Na
The electronic structure can also be stated as a
series of numbers called the electron configuration.
The electronic configuration of the sodium atom
shown is: 2.8.1
1st
shell
2nd
shell
3rd
shell
Atomic Structure
Chapter 2
9. Outer Electrons
The electrons in the outermost shell are called the outer
electrons or valence electrons.
Atomic Structure
Chapter 2
Valence electrons
10. Isotopes
Isotopes are atoms of the same element which have the
same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.
Isotopes are chemically alike in all aspects, except for their
masses. However, some isotopes are radioactive.
Hydrogen has three isotopes 1
1H, 2
1H and 3
1H.
2
1H is called deuterium, 3
1H is called tritium. Both isotopes are found in sea
water and the Sun.
Isotopes of hydrogen
Atomic Structure
Chapter 5
11. Isotopes
Chlorine exists as two main isotopes: 35
17Cl (75%) and
37
17Cl (25%).
The average atomic mass of chlorine is given by the
weighted mean of the two isotopes:
0.75 x 35 + 0.25 x 37 = 35.5
Hence, in the Periodic Table the atomic mass of
chlorine is given as 35.5
17Cl.
Atomic Structure
Chapter 5
12. Ions
In an atom, the number of electrons is equal to the number of protons,
so an atom is electrically neutral.
However, atoms can lose or gain electrons to form charged particles
called ions.
Atoms form ions so that they can have the stable electronic structure of
a noble gas such as helium, neon or argon.
A sodium atom (2.8.1), gives away its 1 outer electron to form a positively charged
sodium ion, Na+
(2.8), which has the same electronic structure as neon.
Atomic Structure
Chapter 5
13. Positive and negative Ions
If an atom gives away its outer electrons, then it has more
protons than electrons and becomes a positively charged
ion.
If an atom takes in electrons, then it has more electrons than
protons, and it becomes a negatively charged ion.
Examples:
Mg Mg2+
+ 2e-
(Mg loses two electrons to form a positive ion, Mg2+
)
Cl + e-
Cl-
(Cl gains one electron to form a negative ion, Cl-
)
Atomic Structure
Chapter 5
15. Ions of metals and non-metals
Metals e.g. sodium, calcium and aluminium which have
less than 4 electrons in their outermost shells, always
give away electrons to form positive ions.
Non-metals like chlorine, oxygen and nitrogen which
have more than 4 electrons in their outer shell, take in
electrons to form negative ions.
Atomic Structure
Chapter 2
16. Molecules of elements and compounds
A molecule is made up of two or more atoms chemically joined together.
Molecules of elements are made up of the same kind of atoms.
Molecules of compounds are made up of two or more different kinds of
atoms.
Atomic Structure
Chapter 2
Molecules of elements
Molecules of compounds
17. Quick check 1
1. The nucleus of an atom contains ______ and _______.
2. A proton has a relative mass of _____ and a relative charge of
________ .
3. An electron has a ______ mass and a charge of ______ .
4. A neutron has a relative mass of _____ and a charge of _______ .
5. An atom of potassium is represented by the symbol 39
19K. How
many protons, electrons and neutrons are there in a potassium
atom?
6. An atom of chlorine contains 17 protons, 18 neutrons and 17
electrons. Write the atomic symbol for chlorine.
Solution
Atomic Structure
Chapter 2
18. Quick check 2
1. What are isotopes? Give an example of an element
with isotopes.
2. The table below shows four atoms.
Atom Nucleon
number
Proton
number
Number of
neutrons
Number of
electrons
A 14 6
B 15 7
C 15 6
D 16 8
(a) Complete the table.
(b) Which two atoms
are isotopes?
(c) Which atom has the
greatest
mass?
Solution
Atomic Structure
Chapter 2
19. Quick check 3
2. Complete the following equations:
(a) Li Li+
+ __e-
(b) Mg Mg2+
+ __
(c) Cl + e-
____
(d) S + ____ S2-
(e) Al ____ + 3e-
3. Complete the table on the right.
4. Draw the electronic structure
of the following:
(a) boron,
(b) phosphorus,
(c) chloride ion,
(d) calcium ion.
Element No. of
protons
No. of
electrons
Formula
of ion
Na 11 10
Ca 20 Ca2+
Br 36 Br -
O 8 O2-
Solution
1. Calcium is in Period IV, Group 2 of the Periodic Table. Deduce
the electronic structure of calcium.
Atomic Structure
Chapter 2
20. 1. The nucleus of an atom contains protons and neutrons.
2. A proton has a relative mass of 1 and a relative charge of
+1 .
3. An electron has a negligible mass and a charge
of - 1.
4. A neutron has a relative mass of 1 and a charge
of 0 .
5. 19 protons, 19 electrons and 20 neutrons.
6. 35
17Cl
Return
Atomic Structure
Chapter 2
Solution to Quick check 1
21. 1. Isotopes are atoms of the same element that have the same number of protons
but different numbers of neutrons.
An example of an element with isotopes is hydrogen.
2.
Atom Nucleon
number
Proton
number
Number of
neutrons
Number of
electrons
A 14 6 8 6
B 15 7 8 7
C 15 6 9 6
D 16 8 8 8
(b) Which two atoms are isotopes? A and C
(c) Which atom has the greatest mass? D
Return
Atomic Structure
Chapter 2
Solution to Quick check 2
22. Solution to Quick check 3
1. The electronic structure of
calcium is 2.8.8.2
2. (a) Li Li+
+ e-
(b) Mg Mg2+
+ 2e-
(c) Cl + e-
Cl-
(d) S + 2e-
S2-
(e) Al Al3+
+ 3e-
3. Complete the table on the right.
Return
Atomic Structure
Chapter 2
Element No. of
protons
No. of
electrons
Formula
of ion
Na 11 10 Na+
Ca 20 18 Ca2+
Br 35 36 Br -
O 8 10 O2-
23. 4.
(a) boron (b) phosphorus
(c) chloride ion (d) calcium ion
Return
Atomic Structure
Chapter 2
Solution to Quick check 3