Types Of nuclear reactions. Nuclear Fission Reaction. Nuclear Fusion Reaction. Difference between nuclear fusion and nuclear fusion. Light Element Fission. Light Element Fusion. Nuclear Fusion on Sun. Beta Decay process happening in sun. A short explanation of D–D reaction, D–He(3) reaction, D–T reaction. the outstanding problem is the tritium supply. Binding energy curve.Energy partition in process of fusion reactions. How then can light element fusion reactions be initiated? A major explanation for all these above steps. A complete explanation by Syed Hammad Ali Gillani.
more chemistry contents are available
1. pdf file on Termmate: https://www.termmate.com/rabia.aziz
2. YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCKxWnNdskGHnZFS0h1QRTEA
3. Facebook: https://web.facebook.com/Chemist.Rabia.Aziz/
4. Blogger: https://chemistry-academy.blogspot.com/
BS-III
Nuclear chain reaction. What is a chain reaction? Nuclear Fission process.Mechanism of the Fission process.Examples of Nuclear Fission Reaction, Fission as a chain mechanism.Critical Mass. Why we use Uranium-235 and Plutonium? Types of Fission chain process. Control Chain Reaction. Uncontrolled Chain reaction. Problem with Nuclear Fission Reactions. Advantages of the fission process. Disadvantages of the Fission process. Applications of the Fission process. A complete explanation by Syed Hammad Ali Gillani.
more chemistry contents are available
1. pdf file on Termmate: https://www.termmate.com/rabia.aziz
2. YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCKxWnNdskGHnZFS0h1QRTEA
3. Facebook: https://web.facebook.com/Chemist.Rabia.Aziz/
4. Blogger: https://chemistry-academy.blogspot.com/
BS-III
Nuclear chain reaction. What is a chain reaction? Nuclear Fission process.Mechanism of the Fission process.Examples of Nuclear Fission Reaction, Fission as a chain mechanism.Critical Mass. Why we use Uranium-235 and Plutonium? Types of Fission chain process. Control Chain Reaction. Uncontrolled Chain reaction. Problem with Nuclear Fission Reactions. Advantages of the fission process. Disadvantages of the Fission process. Applications of the Fission process. A complete explanation by Syed Hammad Ali Gillani.
PART V - Continuation of PART III - QM and PART IV - QFT.
I intended to finish with the Hydrogen Atom description and the atomic orbital framework but I deemed the content void of a few important features: the Harmonic Oscillator and an introduction to Electromagnetic Interactions which leads directly to a formulation of the Quantization of the Radiation Field. I could not finish without wrapping it up with a development of Transition Probabilities and Einstein Coefficients which opens up the proof of the Planck distribution law, the photoelectric effect and Higher order electromagnetic interactions. I believe this is the key contribution: making it more understandable up to, but not including, quantum electrodynamics!
PART V - Continuation of PART III - QM and PART IV - QFT.
I intended to finish with the Hydrogen Atom description and the atomic orbital framework but I deemed the content void of a few important features: the Harmonic Oscillator and an introduction to Electromagnetic Interactions which leads directly to a formulation of the Quantization of the Radiation Field. I could not finish without wrapping it up with a development of Transition Probabilities and Einstein Coefficients which opens up the proof of the Planck distribution law, the photoelectric effect and Higher order electromagnetic interactions. I believe this is the key contribution: making it more understandable up to, but not including, quantum electrodynamics!
This is the seminar report on the topic Nuclear fusion and its prospects as a future source of Energy. You can also look for the slides that I've published by the same title.
Nuclear physics is a branch of physics that focuses on the study of atomic nuclei and their interactions. It explores the properties and behavior of atomic nuclei, which are the central cores of atoms containing protons and neutrons. This field is crucial for understanding the fundamental forces that govern the behavior of matter at the atomic and subatomic levels.
A Technology Review of Electricity Generation from Nuclear Fusion Reaction in...IJMER
In this review paper, we have tried to revisit the basic concept of nuclear fusion and the recent
thrust that has been witnessed in the recent times towards power generation from it . In fusion we get the
energy when two atoms fused together to form one atoms. With current technology the reaction most
readily feasible is between the nuclei of the deuterium (D) and tritium (T). Each D-T releases 17.6 MeV of
energy. The use of nuclear fusion plant will substantially will reduce the environmental impacts of
increasing world electricity demands. Fusion power offers the prospect of an almost inexhaustible source of
energy for future generation but it also presents so far insurmountable scientific and engineering
challenges.
Richard's aventures in two entangled wonderlandsRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
Comparing Evolved Extractive Text Summary Scores of Bidirectional Encoder Rep...University of Maribor
Slides from:
11th International Conference on Electrical, Electronics and Computer Engineering (IcETRAN), Niš, 3-6 June 2024
Track: Artificial Intelligence
https://www.etran.rs/2024/en/home-english/
Slide 1: Title Slide
Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Slide 2: Introduction to Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Definition: Extrachromosomal inheritance refers to the transmission of genetic material that is not found within the nucleus.
Key Components: Involves genes located in mitochondria, chloroplasts, and plasmids.
Slide 3: Mitochondrial Inheritance
Mitochondria: Organelles responsible for energy production.
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in mitochondria.
Inheritance Pattern: Maternally inherited, meaning it is passed from mothers to all their offspring.
Diseases: Examples include Leber’s hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) and mitochondrial myopathy.
Slide 4: Chloroplast Inheritance
Chloroplasts: Organelles responsible for photosynthesis in plants.
Chloroplast DNA (cpDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in chloroplasts.
Inheritance Pattern: Often maternally inherited in most plants, but can vary in some species.
Examples: Variegation in plants, where leaf color patterns are determined by chloroplast DNA.
Slide 5: Plasmid Inheritance
Plasmids: Small, circular DNA molecules found in bacteria and some eukaryotes.
Features: Can carry antibiotic resistance genes and can be transferred between cells through processes like conjugation.
Significance: Important in biotechnology for gene cloning and genetic engineering.
Slide 6: Mechanisms of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Non-Mendelian Patterns: Do not follow Mendel’s laws of inheritance.
Cytoplasmic Segregation: During cell division, organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts are randomly distributed to daughter cells.
Heteroplasmy: Presence of more than one type of organellar genome within a cell, leading to variation in expression.
Slide 7: Examples of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Four O’clock Plant (Mirabilis jalapa): Shows variegated leaves due to different cpDNA in leaf cells.
Petite Mutants in Yeast: Result from mutations in mitochondrial DNA affecting respiration.
Slide 8: Importance of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Evolution: Provides insight into the evolution of eukaryotic cells.
Medicine: Understanding mitochondrial inheritance helps in diagnosing and treating mitochondrial diseases.
Agriculture: Chloroplast inheritance can be used in plant breeding and genetic modification.
Slide 9: Recent Research and Advances
Gene Editing: Techniques like CRISPR-Cas9 are being used to edit mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA.
Therapies: Development of mitochondrial replacement therapy (MRT) for preventing mitochondrial diseases.
Slide 10: Conclusion
Summary: Extrachromosomal inheritance involves the transmission of genetic material outside the nucleus and plays a crucial role in genetics, medicine, and biotechnology.
Future Directions: Continued research and technological advancements hold promise for new treatments and applications.
Slide 11: Questions and Discussion
Invite Audience: Open the floor for any questions or further discussion on the topic.
Earliest Galaxies in the JADES Origins Field: Luminosity Function and Cosmic ...Sérgio Sacani
We characterize the earliest galaxy population in the JADES Origins Field (JOF), the deepest
imaging field observed with JWST. We make use of the ancillary Hubble optical images (5 filters
spanning 0.4−0.9µm) and novel JWST images with 14 filters spanning 0.8−5µm, including 7 mediumband filters, and reaching total exposure times of up to 46 hours per filter. We combine all our data
at > 2.3µm to construct an ultradeep image, reaching as deep as ≈ 31.4 AB mag in the stack and
30.3-31.0 AB mag (5σ, r = 0.1” circular aperture) in individual filters. We measure photometric
redshifts and use robust selection criteria to identify a sample of eight galaxy candidates at redshifts
z = 11.5 − 15. These objects show compact half-light radii of R1/2 ∼ 50 − 200pc, stellar masses of
M⋆ ∼ 107−108M⊙, and star-formation rates of SFR ∼ 0.1−1 M⊙ yr−1
. Our search finds no candidates
at 15 < z < 20, placing upper limits at these redshifts. We develop a forward modeling approach to
infer the properties of the evolving luminosity function without binning in redshift or luminosity that
marginalizes over the photometric redshift uncertainty of our candidate galaxies and incorporates the
impact of non-detections. We find a z = 12 luminosity function in good agreement with prior results,
and that the luminosity function normalization and UV luminosity density decline by a factor of ∼ 2.5
from z = 12 to z = 14. We discuss the possible implications of our results in the context of theoretical
models for evolution of the dark matter halo mass function.
This presentation explores a brief idea about the structural and functional attributes of nucleotides, the structure and function of genetic materials along with the impact of UV rays and pH upon them.
Deep Behavioral Phenotyping in Systems Neuroscience for Functional Atlasing a...Ana Luísa Pinho
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) provides means to characterize brain activations in response to behavior. However, cognitive neuroscience has been limited to group-level effects referring to the performance of specific tasks. To obtain the functional profile of elementary cognitive mechanisms, the combination of brain responses to many tasks is required. Yet, to date, both structural atlases and parcellation-based activations do not fully account for cognitive function and still present several limitations. Further, they do not adapt overall to individual characteristics. In this talk, I will give an account of deep-behavioral phenotyping strategies, namely data-driven methods in large task-fMRI datasets, to optimize functional brain-data collection and improve inference of effects-of-interest related to mental processes. Key to this approach is the employment of fast multi-functional paradigms rich on features that can be well parametrized and, consequently, facilitate the creation of psycho-physiological constructs to be modelled with imaging data. Particular emphasis will be given to music stimuli when studying high-order cognitive mechanisms, due to their ecological nature and quality to enable complex behavior compounded by discrete entities. I will also discuss how deep-behavioral phenotyping and individualized models applied to neuroimaging data can better account for the subject-specific organization of domain-general cognitive systems in the human brain. Finally, the accumulation of functional brain signatures brings the possibility to clarify relationships among tasks and create a univocal link between brain systems and mental functions through: (1) the development of ontologies proposing an organization of cognitive processes; and (2) brain-network taxonomies describing functional specialization. To this end, tools to improve commensurability in cognitive science are necessary, such as public repositories, ontology-based platforms and automated meta-analysis tools. I will thus discuss some brain-atlasing resources currently under development, and their applicability in cognitive as well as clinical neuroscience.
Nutraceutical market, scope and growth: Herbal drug technologyLokesh Patil
As consumer awareness of health and wellness rises, the nutraceutical market—which includes goods like functional meals, drinks, and dietary supplements that provide health advantages beyond basic nutrition—is growing significantly. As healthcare expenses rise, the population ages, and people want natural and preventative health solutions more and more, this industry is increasing quickly. Further driving market expansion are product formulation innovations and the use of cutting-edge technology for customized nutrition. With its worldwide reach, the nutraceutical industry is expected to keep growing and provide significant chances for research and investment in a number of categories, including vitamins, minerals, probiotics, and herbal supplements.
Multi-source connectivity as the driver of solar wind variability in the heli...Sérgio Sacani
The ambient solar wind that flls the heliosphere originates from multiple
sources in the solar corona and is highly structured. It is often described
as high-speed, relatively homogeneous, plasma streams from coronal
holes and slow-speed, highly variable, streams whose source regions are
under debate. A key goal of ESA/NASA’s Solar Orbiter mission is to identify
solar wind sources and understand what drives the complexity seen in the
heliosphere. By combining magnetic feld modelling and spectroscopic
techniques with high-resolution observations and measurements, we show
that the solar wind variability detected in situ by Solar Orbiter in March
2022 is driven by spatio-temporal changes in the magnetic connectivity to
multiple sources in the solar atmosphere. The magnetic feld footpoints
connected to the spacecraft moved from the boundaries of a coronal hole
to one active region (12961) and then across to another region (12957). This
is refected in the in situ measurements, which show the transition from fast
to highly Alfvénic then to slow solar wind that is disrupted by the arrival of
a coronal mass ejection. Our results describe solar wind variability at 0.5 au
but are applicable to near-Earth observatories.
Body fluids_tonicity_dehydration_hypovolemia_hypervolemia.pptx
Nuclear Fusion Reaction
1. NUCLEAR FUSION REACTION
Semester Fall 2020
Date ( Dec-1st-2020)
Submitted by : Syed Hammad Ali ( 19012510-085)
Program : MSc-III / D
Course Title : Plasma Physics
Course Code : PHY-451
Department of Physics
University of Gujrat
2. NUCLEAR REACTION:
1. There are two types of reactions:
Nuclear Fission and Nuclear Fusion.
2. Nuclear reaction:
Hard to produce
Powerful
Use neutrons
3. Nuclear Fission process
• Heavy nucleus is bombarded with slow
moving neutrons and two nuclei produced
with more neutrons and high amount of
energy is released.
• Considering U-235 as a heavy element. A
slow moving neutron is set to strike on it
and resulting two lighter nuclei(Ba-144
and Kr-89) produced along with 3 moving
neutrons and high amount of energy
which can be denoted as Q.
4. Nuclear Fusion
Nuclear fusion is when two small, light
nuclei join together to make one heavy
nucleus.
Fusion reactions occur in stars where two
hydrogen nuclei fuse together under high
temperatures and pressure to form a
nucleus of a helium isotope.
There are a number of different nuclear
fusion reactions happening in the Sun.
5.
6. Light Nuclei In Nuclear Reaction:
Light element Fission:
Bombardment of a deuterium nucleus 𝟏
𝟐
𝑯
with a neutron. The relevant reaction can
be written as:
0
1
𝑛 + 1
2
𝐻 → 1
1
𝐻 + 2(0
1
𝑛) + 𝐸
Reaction leads to the desired neutron
multiplication. The energy released as
calculated from the nuclear data show that
E = -2.23 MeV.
Negative sign indicates that energy is not
actually released but must be supplied as
an input to make the reaction take place.
Clearly this would be unacceptable as a
power source.
Light element Fusion:
Hypothetical example again assume that
a neutron collides with a deuterium
nucleus. The resulting
nuclear fusion reaction can be written
as:
0
1
𝑛 + 1
2
𝐻 → 2
3
𝐻𝑒 + 𝑒−
+ 𝐸
In this case the nuclear data show that E
= +6.27 MeV. The fusion reaction is
energetically favorable for power
production.
7. Fusion Is Un-Acceptable For Power Source:
• The reaction consumes neutrons.
• Since there are no readily available sources of neutrons, this reaction is not self-
sustainable.
• Therefore, it too is unacceptable as a practical power source.
How then can light element fusion reactions be
initiated?
• Replace the neutron with another light element; that is, generate a nuclear reaction
by having two light elements bombard each other, for instance two colliding
deuterium nuclei.
• The advantage of this idea is that the lack of a chain reaction is easily overcome by
simply providing a continuous supply of deuterium, which, unlike a neutron supply,
is readily and inexpensively available.
8. Disadvantage Is That For Two Deuterium Atoms:
• Deuterium is an isotope of Hydrogen atom which is proton.
• Proton and proton always repels.
• To undergo a nuclear reaction, their nuclei must be in very close proximity
to each other, typically within a nuclear diameter.
• At these close distances, the inter-particle Coulomb potential produces a
strong repulsive force between the two positively charged nuclei, which
diverts the particle orbits and greatly reduces the likelihood of a nuclear
reaction.
9. If Neglecting Issues:
• If these issues are not considered and attention is focused solely
on the nuclear energy production of various fusion reactions without
regard for how easy or difficult it may be to produce these reactions.
• Studies of the nuclear properties of light element fusion indicate that
three such reactions may be advantageous for the production of
nuclear energy. These involve deuterium, tritium, and helium-3, an
isotope of helium.
10. Fusion In Sun:
Inside the core of sun there is a
small nuclei.
Electrostatic force rip apart the
nucleus because of repulsion of
proton and proton.
The strong nuclear force holds
the nucleus.
11. The sun is much dense part so protons in it so protons collide in
it.
But somehow two protons collide and due to beta decay one
proton converts into neutron.
The Hydrogen-2 forms and cause explosion with release of
energy.
Hydrogen-2 continuously move and came near to another proton
and become Helium-3 with release of tons of energy.
The process continues and inside more helium-3 produces.
12. When two helium-3 nuclei
came close to each other they
came into a better combination
and results in formation of one
single helium-4 and results in
release of energy.
The 1st step is slowest because
we have to wait for occurrence
of beta decay.
The 3rd step, when two helium-
3 collides a helioum-4 nuclei
occurs with release of two
protons.
13. The D–D reaction:
• Nuclear interaction of two deuterium nuclei.
• This is the most desirable reaction in the sense of a virtually unlimited
supply of inexpensive fuel, easily extracted from the ocean.
• The D–D reaction actually has two branches, each occurring with an
approximately equal likelihood.
• The relevant reactions are as follows:
14. • In terms of energy content the two reactions produce 0.82 and 1.01
MeV per nucleon respectively. Macroscopically this is equivalent to 78
× 106and 96 ×106 MJ/kg of deuterium, typical of nuclear energy
yields.
15. The D–𝑯𝒆𝟑
reaction:
• It requires helium-3 as a component of the fuel and there are no natural supplies
of this isotope on earth.
• The reaction is also difficult to achieve, but less so than for D–D.
• The reaction is worth discussing since the end products are all charged particles.
• The reaction is:
• The energy released per reaction is impressive, even by nuclear standards. The
18.3 MeV corresponds to 3.66 MeV per nucleon, which is macroscopically
equivalent to 351 ×106 MJ/kg of the combined D–He3 fuel.
16. The D–T reaction:
• It can be written as:
• D–T reactions produce large numbers of neutrons and require a
supply of tritium in order to be capable of continuous operation, but
there is no natural tritium on earth.
• The tritium is radioactive with a half-life of 12.26 years.
• This corresponds to 3.52 MeV per nucleon and is macroscopically
equivalent to 338 × 106MJ/kg.
17. The one outstanding problem is the tritium supply:
• The solution is to breed tritium in the blanket surrounding the region
of D–T fusion reactions.
• The chemical element that is most favorable for breeding tritium is
lithium.
• The nuclear reactions of primary interest are:
18. • Both reactions produce tritium although the first reaction generates
energy while the second one consumes energy.
• Also natural lithium comprises 7.4% 3
6
𝐿𝑖 and 92.6% 3
7
𝐿𝑖. Even though
there is a much larger fraction of 3
7
𝐿𝑖, nuclear data show that the 3
6
𝐿𝑖
reaction is much easier to initiate and as a result it is this reaction that
dominates in the breeding of tritium.
• For present purposes one should assume that the issues have been
satisfactorily resolved. Consequently, breeding T from 3
6
𝐿𝑖solves the
problem of sustaining the tritium supply, assuming adequate supplies of
lithium are available.
19. Energy partition in fusion reactions:
• The end products which forms after fusion reaction explicit large amount of
energy appear in the form of kinetic energy.
• More importantly for the D–T reaction where one end product is electrically
charged and the other is not.
• The distribution can be easily determined by making use of the well-satisfied
assumption that the energy and momentum of each end product far surpasses that
of the initial fusing nuclei.
• Suppose we have two sub-scripts of end products namely,1 and 2. The initially
fusing particles are at rest. The conservation of energy and momentum relations
before and after the fusion reaction involve only the end products and thus have
the forms.
20. • The end products have the form given below,
⇒
1
2
𝑚1𝑣1
2
+
1
2
𝑚2𝑣2
2
= 𝐸
⇒ 𝑚1𝑣1 + 𝑚2𝑣2= 0
After solving for 𝑣1 and 𝑣2 we got below equations,
⇒
1
2
𝑚1𝑣1
2
=
𝑚2
𝑚1+𝑚2
𝐸
⇒
1
2
𝑚2𝑣2
2
=
𝑚1
𝑚1+𝑚2
𝐸
Energy partition in fusion reactions:
21. Energy partition in fusion reactions:
• As we see from above equations the kinetic energies are apportioned inversely
with the mass, either we can say lighter particle carries most of the energy.
• For example the end product for D-T reaction where E = 17.6 MeV consist of
alpha particle and neutron 𝑚α / 𝑚n = 4.
• Thus the kinetic energy of the alpha particle is equal to (1/5) E = 3.5 MeV,
while
• that of the neutron is equal to (4/5)E = 14.1 MeV. The neutron energy is four
times larger
• than that of the alpha particle.
• Rewrite the D–T fusion reaction in the slightly more convenient form
D + T → α(3.5 MeV) + n(14.1 MeV).
• This reaction that dominates the world’s fusion research program.
22. The binding energy curve and why it has the shape it does:
The nuclear reactions are initiated for
• Heavy metals called fission reaction.
• Light element called fusion reaction.
• The nuclear reaction does not start for intermediate elements.
This explanation is resulted from two observations.
• From binding energy vs atomic mass graph.
• The shape of binding energy curve.
23. The binding energy curve and why it has the shape it does:
• Graph explains binding forces of nuclei of heavy and light elements are weaker
than intermediate elements.
• Shape arises due to geometric competition between strong nuclear forces which
are short range and long range but weak coulombic forces.