From its initiation in 1998, the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (APG) has focused on the production of an ever-more stable system of classification of the flowering plants (angiosperms). Based largely on analyses of DNA sequence data, the system is compiled by a larger group of experts than any previous system and has the advantage of being testable, allowing for confidence levels in the system to be estimated for the first time.
Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification
APG I
APG II
APG III
APG IV
Molecular Based system
features and organization
Merits and demerits
Difference in APG system.
Pentoxylales were small trees or shrubs that existed in the Jurassic period in India. They had long and short shoots resembling Ginkgo, with spirally arranged leaves and scales. The stems (Pentoxylon) had five triangular segments around a central tissue. Leaves (Nipaniophyllum) were strap-shaped with a midrib. Male cones (Sahnia) bore pollen sacs on short shoots. Female cones (Carnoconites) had ovules aggregated into strobili on short shoots. Stomata were syndetochelic. Wood was pycnoxylic, resembling conifers. Pentoxylales displayed features intermediate between ferns
Classification denotes the arrangement of a single plant or group of plants an distinct category following a system of nomenclature, and in accordance with a particular and well established plan.
The document discusses the principles and rules of the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (ICN). It describes how the ICN evolved from earlier codes established in the 19th century to provide internationally agreed upon rules for naming plant taxa. Key points covered include the establishment of the International Botanical Congress to govern the ICN, important milestones in the various international botanic congresses, the principles of priority and typification/type method that are fundamental to botanical nomenclature, and some examples of how these principles are applied.
This PPT offers a birds' eye view of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group III to cover the course content and its complexity.It also covers the emerging trend of the plants taxonomic domain.
Anatomy in relation to taxonomy by venkat parker venkatparker
This document discusses the importance of anatomical features in plant taxonomy and systematics. It provides examples of how wood anatomy, trichomes, epidermal features, leaf anatomy, floral anatomy, and plastid types have helped elucidate phylogenetic relationships. Wood anatomy separates Paeonia and Austrobaileya into distinct families. Nodal anatomy and stomatal types also distinguish plant groups. Leaf anatomy helped develop the gonophyll theory and reject fossil plants. Floral anatomy supports separating Menyanthes and Gentianaceae. Plastid types separate Aizoaceae and Molluginaceae.
From its initiation in 1998, the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (APG) has focused on the production of an ever-more stable system of classification of the flowering plants (angiosperms). Based largely on analyses of DNA sequence data, the system is compiled by a larger group of experts than any previous system and has the advantage of being testable, allowing for confidence levels in the system to be estimated for the first time.
Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification
APG I
APG II
APG III
APG IV
Molecular Based system
features and organization
Merits and demerits
Difference in APG system.
Pentoxylales were small trees or shrubs that existed in the Jurassic period in India. They had long and short shoots resembling Ginkgo, with spirally arranged leaves and scales. The stems (Pentoxylon) had five triangular segments around a central tissue. Leaves (Nipaniophyllum) were strap-shaped with a midrib. Male cones (Sahnia) bore pollen sacs on short shoots. Female cones (Carnoconites) had ovules aggregated into strobili on short shoots. Stomata were syndetochelic. Wood was pycnoxylic, resembling conifers. Pentoxylales displayed features intermediate between ferns
Classification denotes the arrangement of a single plant or group of plants an distinct category following a system of nomenclature, and in accordance with a particular and well established plan.
The document discusses the principles and rules of the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (ICN). It describes how the ICN evolved from earlier codes established in the 19th century to provide internationally agreed upon rules for naming plant taxa. Key points covered include the establishment of the International Botanical Congress to govern the ICN, important milestones in the various international botanic congresses, the principles of priority and typification/type method that are fundamental to botanical nomenclature, and some examples of how these principles are applied.
This PPT offers a birds' eye view of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group III to cover the course content and its complexity.It also covers the emerging trend of the plants taxonomic domain.
Anatomy in relation to taxonomy by venkat parker venkatparker
This document discusses the importance of anatomical features in plant taxonomy and systematics. It provides examples of how wood anatomy, trichomes, epidermal features, leaf anatomy, floral anatomy, and plastid types have helped elucidate phylogenetic relationships. Wood anatomy separates Paeonia and Austrobaileya into distinct families. Nodal anatomy and stomatal types also distinguish plant groups. Leaf anatomy helped develop the gonophyll theory and reject fossil plants. Floral anatomy supports separating Menyanthes and Gentianaceae. Plastid types separate Aizoaceae and Molluginaceae.
evidences of anatomy, cytology and chemistry to plant taxonomynasira jaffry
taxonomy is based on other disciplines of sciences. in this presentation, there is discussion how anatomy, cytology and chemistry influnces the taxonomy
George Bentham and Joseph Hooker jointly presented a comprehensive system of plant classification in their work Genera Plantarum, published in 3 volumes. Their system classified seed plants into 97,205 species under 202 orders or families, divided into 3 classes - dicots, gymnosperms, and monocots. Dicots were further divided into 3 divisions and 14 series based on natural and visual characteristics to provide a key for plant identification. This system was widely adopted because the descriptions of each taxon were based on detailed examination of actual herbarium specimens.
This document provides information about botanical nomenclature and the rules for scientific naming of plants. It discusses Carl Linnaeus who is considered the father of modern botanical nomenclature. The key points are: scientific names provide a uniform name for plants worldwide; names have specific Latinized suffixes for different taxonomic ranks; there are rules of priority, for nomenclatural types, and for effective publication of new names. Binomial nomenclature follows specific rules where the genus is capitalized and author is included. Some plants have a trinomial name with a subspecific rank.
* The Gymnosperms originated in the Devonian period of the Palaeozoic Era and formed the supreme vegetation in the Mesozoic Era.
* It was Robert Brown (1827) who first recognised gymnosperms as a separate entity among plant kingdom.
This document discusses the geological timeline of early flowering plants (angiosperms). It notes that flowering plants first appeared in the Lower Cretaceous period, around 125 million years ago, based on fossil evidence, though earlier traces are scarce. It then describes several early angiosperm fossils found from the Late Triassic to Early Cretaceous periods that provide evidence of the earliest evolution of flowering plants, including Furcula granulifera, Archaefructus liaoningensis, Homoxylon rajmahalense, and Bevhalstia pebja. The document concludes with notes on the fossil record of early monocots.
This document provides information about taxonomic tools of floras. It begins by defining what a flora is - a description of plants found in a particular region. Floras typically include keys for identification and maps showing plant ranges. The document then classifies different types of floras based on their geographic scope, such as local, regional, continental, and special floras. It also discusses the data commonly presented in floras, including taxonomic hierarchies, identification tools, descriptions, illustrations, and voucher specimens. Finally, it provides details about the Flora of Gujarat, India, which documents over 2,000 plant species found in the region.
This document summarizes several systems of plant classification including artificial, natural, and phylogenetic systems. It provides details on Linnaeus' artificial classification system based on plant sexuality and number of sexual parts. It also describes Bentham and Hooker's widely adopted natural system from 1862-1883, and Engler and Prantl's phylogenetic system from 1887-1915 which was based on evolutionary relationships and classified plants into 13 divisions.
The document summarizes the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN). It provides a brief history of botanical naming conventions beginning with Linnaeus' binomial system in 1753. It describes the subsequent meetings that have been held to refine the ICBN rules. The principles of the ICBN are to establish a stable and universal naming system through use of types, priority of publication, and Latin names. Key rules covered include ranks of taxa, typification, requirements for valid publication, author citation, and criteria for selecting correct names when taxa change ranks or are combined or divided. The overall aim of the ICBN is to provide consistency in botanical nomenclature.
TAKHTAJAN SYSTEM OF CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTSHasnain Sarwar
The document discusses the Takhtajan system of classification for flowering plants developed by Armenian botanist Armen Leonovich Takhtajan. Some key points:
- Takhtajan published his initial classification scheme in 1940 based on phylogenetic relationships, revising it several times until 1997.
- His system recognizes a single division (Magnoliophyta) of two classes - Magnoliopsida (dicots) and Liliopsida (monocots).
- It has advantages of being based on evolutionary relationships and forming small homogeneous families, but disadvantages include narrow criteria splitting related groups and placing monocots after dicots.
The document summarizes Engler and Prantl's system of plant classification from the late 19th century. It divides plants into 13 divisions, with seed plants in the 13th division Embryophyta Siphonogamia. This is further divided into gymnosperms and angiosperms. Angiosperms are divided into monocotyledons and dicotyledons. Dicots are divided into subclasses of Archichlamydeae and Sympetalae. The system arranged plant groups based on evolutionary relationships but had some inaccuracies like considering monocots primitive to dicots.
The International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN) governs the formal scientific names used for plants. Some key points:
- Carl Linnaeus is considered the father of modern taxonomy and introduced the system of scientific naming for species in 1753.
- Names are determined by nomenclature types and are based on priority of publication. Each taxonomic group can have only one correct scientific name.
- Names are revised in subsequent International Botanical Congresses starting in 1892 to establish standards for effective/valid publication, author citation, typification, and rejection of illegitimate names.
- Related codes also exist for zoological nomenclature, cultivated plants, bacteria,
This document provides an overview of plant nomenclature and the rules for scientific naming of plants according to the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (ICN). It discusses key concepts such as scientific names, binomial nomenclature, types, ranks, valid publication, synonyms, and correct names. The document is intended as an educational guide for those interested in learning about the standards for assigning and determining scientific names of plant taxa.
1. The document discusses the Magnoliaceae plant family, describing its geographical distribution, habitat, morphology, and key characteristics.
2. Trees and shrubs in this family have alternate simple leaves with deciduous stipules leaving a circular scar. Their large, bisexual flowers are solitary with numerous spirally arranged floral parts on an elongated thalamus.
3. The family includes 7 genera and over 230 species of temperate to tropical rainforest trees and shrubs. Several species are cultivated for ornamental or medicinal purposes.
This document summarizes the Meliaceae family of plants. It describes their distribution as trees and shrubs found in tropical regions. Their key features include alternate, pinnately compound leaves and cymose inflorescences. Flowers are hermaphroditic or polygamous, pentamerous with a nectariferous disc. Fruits produced are berries, capsules or drupes. Some economically important species provide oils, medicines and timber. Common plants in the family include neem, Indian mahogany, and mahogany.
The document discusses the principles and rules of botanical nomenclature, which provide standardized scientific names for naming plant taxa. Key points include: botanical nomenclature is governed by the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature; scientific names are binomial and provide universal and unambiguous references to taxa; names are based on priority of publication with earliest legitimate name being the correct name; and names can change ranks over time while maintaining priority.
Angiosperms are the flowering plants also known as Magnoliophyta. The botanical term "Angiosperm" meaning ‘bottle or vessel’ is derived from the ancient Greek. These are the most diverse group of land plants. Angiosperms are seed-producing plants and the distinguished features of angiosperms over gymnosperms are angiosperms bear flowers, endosperm within the seeds and the production of fruits that contain the seed. According to the botanists the flowering plants diversified and widespread 120 million years ago. The classification of the flowering plants also has a long history.
In the past, classification systems were typically produced by an individual botanist or by a small group resulting large number of systems. Different systems and their updates were generally favored in different countries. Bentham and Hooker’s system was popular in the Britain and the Engler’s system was famous in the Europe etc. These systems were introduced before the availability of genetic evidences and angiosperms were classified using their morphology and biochemistry. After the 1980’s genetic evidences were available and phylogenetic methods came into the classification procedures.
In the late 1990s, an informal group of researchers from major institutions worldwide came together and they established the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (APG). The objective was to provide a widely accepted and more stable point of reference for angiosperm classification. APG I was published in 1998 as their first attempt in Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden. The initial 1998 paper by the APG made angiosperms the first large group of organisms to be systematically re-classified primarily on the basis of genetic characteristics. The group emphasized the need for a classification system for angiosperms at the level of families, orders and above. The existed systems are rejected is because they are not phylogenetically classified. The outline of a phylogenetic tree of all flowering plants became established and several well supported major clades involving many families of flowering plants were identified. The new knowledge of phylogeny revealed relationships in conflict with the then widely used modern classifications.
The principles of APG system are retaining the Linnean system of orders and families, Use of monophyletic groups (Consist of all descendants of a common ancestor), taking a broad approach to defining the limits of groups such as orders and families and use of term ‘clades’ above or parallel to the level of orders and families. A major outcome of the classification is the disappearance of the traditional division of the flowering plants into two groups, which are monocots and dicots.
Even though there are several controversies about APG the botanists worldwide are influenced by the concept and are currently practice the system.
The type method is used to name taxonomic groups based on selecting a representative type specimen. The type specimen fixes the name of the taxonomic group and is permanently associated with it. There are several kinds of type specimens depending on how they were selected, including holotypes, isotypes, syntypes, paratypes, lectotypes, neotypes, and topotypes. The type specimen is usually a single preserved plant housed in a known herbarium and identified by collection details.
The APG system (Angiosperm Phylogeny Group system) is the first version of a modern, mostly molecular-based system of plant taxonomy.
Published in 1998 by the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group, it was replaced by the improved APG II in 2003, APG III system in 2009 and APG IV system in 2016.
Angiosperm phlogeny group taxonomy classificationharitha shankar
The document summarizes the recent APG system of plant classification which is based on phylogenetic analysis of DNA sequences and morphological data. It outlines the main clades recognized in the system including basal angiosperms containing Amborellaceae, Nymphaeales and monocots. Magnolids contain four orders while eudicots are divided into basal and core eudicots. Core eudicots include rosids and asterids, with rosids further divided into eurosids I and II. Each clade contains representative orders and families. The APG system strictly follows the principle of monophyly and is based on evidence from multiple sources, though some limitations remain regarding placement of some families.
evidences of anatomy, cytology and chemistry to plant taxonomynasira jaffry
taxonomy is based on other disciplines of sciences. in this presentation, there is discussion how anatomy, cytology and chemistry influnces the taxonomy
George Bentham and Joseph Hooker jointly presented a comprehensive system of plant classification in their work Genera Plantarum, published in 3 volumes. Their system classified seed plants into 97,205 species under 202 orders or families, divided into 3 classes - dicots, gymnosperms, and monocots. Dicots were further divided into 3 divisions and 14 series based on natural and visual characteristics to provide a key for plant identification. This system was widely adopted because the descriptions of each taxon were based on detailed examination of actual herbarium specimens.
This document provides information about botanical nomenclature and the rules for scientific naming of plants. It discusses Carl Linnaeus who is considered the father of modern botanical nomenclature. The key points are: scientific names provide a uniform name for plants worldwide; names have specific Latinized suffixes for different taxonomic ranks; there are rules of priority, for nomenclatural types, and for effective publication of new names. Binomial nomenclature follows specific rules where the genus is capitalized and author is included. Some plants have a trinomial name with a subspecific rank.
* The Gymnosperms originated in the Devonian period of the Palaeozoic Era and formed the supreme vegetation in the Mesozoic Era.
* It was Robert Brown (1827) who first recognised gymnosperms as a separate entity among plant kingdom.
This document discusses the geological timeline of early flowering plants (angiosperms). It notes that flowering plants first appeared in the Lower Cretaceous period, around 125 million years ago, based on fossil evidence, though earlier traces are scarce. It then describes several early angiosperm fossils found from the Late Triassic to Early Cretaceous periods that provide evidence of the earliest evolution of flowering plants, including Furcula granulifera, Archaefructus liaoningensis, Homoxylon rajmahalense, and Bevhalstia pebja. The document concludes with notes on the fossil record of early monocots.
This document provides information about taxonomic tools of floras. It begins by defining what a flora is - a description of plants found in a particular region. Floras typically include keys for identification and maps showing plant ranges. The document then classifies different types of floras based on their geographic scope, such as local, regional, continental, and special floras. It also discusses the data commonly presented in floras, including taxonomic hierarchies, identification tools, descriptions, illustrations, and voucher specimens. Finally, it provides details about the Flora of Gujarat, India, which documents over 2,000 plant species found in the region.
This document summarizes several systems of plant classification including artificial, natural, and phylogenetic systems. It provides details on Linnaeus' artificial classification system based on plant sexuality and number of sexual parts. It also describes Bentham and Hooker's widely adopted natural system from 1862-1883, and Engler and Prantl's phylogenetic system from 1887-1915 which was based on evolutionary relationships and classified plants into 13 divisions.
The document summarizes the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN). It provides a brief history of botanical naming conventions beginning with Linnaeus' binomial system in 1753. It describes the subsequent meetings that have been held to refine the ICBN rules. The principles of the ICBN are to establish a stable and universal naming system through use of types, priority of publication, and Latin names. Key rules covered include ranks of taxa, typification, requirements for valid publication, author citation, and criteria for selecting correct names when taxa change ranks or are combined or divided. The overall aim of the ICBN is to provide consistency in botanical nomenclature.
TAKHTAJAN SYSTEM OF CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTSHasnain Sarwar
The document discusses the Takhtajan system of classification for flowering plants developed by Armenian botanist Armen Leonovich Takhtajan. Some key points:
- Takhtajan published his initial classification scheme in 1940 based on phylogenetic relationships, revising it several times until 1997.
- His system recognizes a single division (Magnoliophyta) of two classes - Magnoliopsida (dicots) and Liliopsida (monocots).
- It has advantages of being based on evolutionary relationships and forming small homogeneous families, but disadvantages include narrow criteria splitting related groups and placing monocots after dicots.
The document summarizes Engler and Prantl's system of plant classification from the late 19th century. It divides plants into 13 divisions, with seed plants in the 13th division Embryophyta Siphonogamia. This is further divided into gymnosperms and angiosperms. Angiosperms are divided into monocotyledons and dicotyledons. Dicots are divided into subclasses of Archichlamydeae and Sympetalae. The system arranged plant groups based on evolutionary relationships but had some inaccuracies like considering monocots primitive to dicots.
The International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN) governs the formal scientific names used for plants. Some key points:
- Carl Linnaeus is considered the father of modern taxonomy and introduced the system of scientific naming for species in 1753.
- Names are determined by nomenclature types and are based on priority of publication. Each taxonomic group can have only one correct scientific name.
- Names are revised in subsequent International Botanical Congresses starting in 1892 to establish standards for effective/valid publication, author citation, typification, and rejection of illegitimate names.
- Related codes also exist for zoological nomenclature, cultivated plants, bacteria,
This document provides an overview of plant nomenclature and the rules for scientific naming of plants according to the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (ICN). It discusses key concepts such as scientific names, binomial nomenclature, types, ranks, valid publication, synonyms, and correct names. The document is intended as an educational guide for those interested in learning about the standards for assigning and determining scientific names of plant taxa.
1. The document discusses the Magnoliaceae plant family, describing its geographical distribution, habitat, morphology, and key characteristics.
2. Trees and shrubs in this family have alternate simple leaves with deciduous stipules leaving a circular scar. Their large, bisexual flowers are solitary with numerous spirally arranged floral parts on an elongated thalamus.
3. The family includes 7 genera and over 230 species of temperate to tropical rainforest trees and shrubs. Several species are cultivated for ornamental or medicinal purposes.
This document summarizes the Meliaceae family of plants. It describes their distribution as trees and shrubs found in tropical regions. Their key features include alternate, pinnately compound leaves and cymose inflorescences. Flowers are hermaphroditic or polygamous, pentamerous with a nectariferous disc. Fruits produced are berries, capsules or drupes. Some economically important species provide oils, medicines and timber. Common plants in the family include neem, Indian mahogany, and mahogany.
The document discusses the principles and rules of botanical nomenclature, which provide standardized scientific names for naming plant taxa. Key points include: botanical nomenclature is governed by the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature; scientific names are binomial and provide universal and unambiguous references to taxa; names are based on priority of publication with earliest legitimate name being the correct name; and names can change ranks over time while maintaining priority.
Angiosperms are the flowering plants also known as Magnoliophyta. The botanical term "Angiosperm" meaning ‘bottle or vessel’ is derived from the ancient Greek. These are the most diverse group of land plants. Angiosperms are seed-producing plants and the distinguished features of angiosperms over gymnosperms are angiosperms bear flowers, endosperm within the seeds and the production of fruits that contain the seed. According to the botanists the flowering plants diversified and widespread 120 million years ago. The classification of the flowering plants also has a long history.
In the past, classification systems were typically produced by an individual botanist or by a small group resulting large number of systems. Different systems and their updates were generally favored in different countries. Bentham and Hooker’s system was popular in the Britain and the Engler’s system was famous in the Europe etc. These systems were introduced before the availability of genetic evidences and angiosperms were classified using their morphology and biochemistry. After the 1980’s genetic evidences were available and phylogenetic methods came into the classification procedures.
In the late 1990s, an informal group of researchers from major institutions worldwide came together and they established the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (APG). The objective was to provide a widely accepted and more stable point of reference for angiosperm classification. APG I was published in 1998 as their first attempt in Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden. The initial 1998 paper by the APG made angiosperms the first large group of organisms to be systematically re-classified primarily on the basis of genetic characteristics. The group emphasized the need for a classification system for angiosperms at the level of families, orders and above. The existed systems are rejected is because they are not phylogenetically classified. The outline of a phylogenetic tree of all flowering plants became established and several well supported major clades involving many families of flowering plants were identified. The new knowledge of phylogeny revealed relationships in conflict with the then widely used modern classifications.
The principles of APG system are retaining the Linnean system of orders and families, Use of monophyletic groups (Consist of all descendants of a common ancestor), taking a broad approach to defining the limits of groups such as orders and families and use of term ‘clades’ above or parallel to the level of orders and families. A major outcome of the classification is the disappearance of the traditional division of the flowering plants into two groups, which are monocots and dicots.
Even though there are several controversies about APG the botanists worldwide are influenced by the concept and are currently practice the system.
The type method is used to name taxonomic groups based on selecting a representative type specimen. The type specimen fixes the name of the taxonomic group and is permanently associated with it. There are several kinds of type specimens depending on how they were selected, including holotypes, isotypes, syntypes, paratypes, lectotypes, neotypes, and topotypes. The type specimen is usually a single preserved plant housed in a known herbarium and identified by collection details.
The APG system (Angiosperm Phylogeny Group system) is the first version of a modern, mostly molecular-based system of plant taxonomy.
Published in 1998 by the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group, it was replaced by the improved APG II in 2003, APG III system in 2009 and APG IV system in 2016.
Angiosperm phlogeny group taxonomy classificationharitha shankar
The document summarizes the recent APG system of plant classification which is based on phylogenetic analysis of DNA sequences and morphological data. It outlines the main clades recognized in the system including basal angiosperms containing Amborellaceae, Nymphaeales and monocots. Magnolids contain four orders while eudicots are divided into basal and core eudicots. Core eudicots include rosids and asterids, with rosids further divided into eurosids I and II. Each clade contains representative orders and families. The APG system strictly follows the principle of monophyly and is based on evidence from multiple sources, though some limitations remain regarding placement of some families.
Angiosperm phlogeny group taxonomy classificationharitha shankar
The document summarizes the recent APG system of plant classification based on phylogenetic analysis. It describes the following key points:
1. The APG system adopted in 1998 uses DNA sequences and morphology to arrange angiosperms into monophyletic groups or clades at different hierarchical levels, from informal groups to orders and families.
2. Major clades include basal angiosperms, magnoliids, eudicots, rosids, and asterids. Monocots are placed within basal angiosperms.
3. The classification recognizes relationships between groups more accurately than previous systems, adopting the phylogenetic principle of monophyly for formal taxonomic ranks. It is based on evidence from multiple sources
This presentation has been intended to offer a bird's eye view about the phylogenetic classification of the plant kingdom in general and the Engler and Prantl system in particular with merits and demerits.
Engler and Prantl published a system of plant classification in 1886 that divided the entire plant kingdom into 13 divisions. It was one of the first phylogenetic systems, meaning it aimed to arrange plants according to their evolutionary relationships. Key aspects included treating monocots as a primitive group and placing gymnosperms between algae and angiosperms. Though pioneering in its evolutionary approach, it had some inaccuracies that have been revised by modern phylogenetic data.
The Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (APG) is an international group of botanists who developed a modern, molecular-evidence based classification system for flowering plants known as the APG system. The APG system was first published in 1998 and is updated periodically, with the current version being APG IV from 2016. It is based on analysis of chloroplast and ribosomal DNA sequences. The APG system aims to make taxonomic groups monophyletic based on phylogenetic relationships, retains the Linnaean hierarchy of orders and families, and takes a broad approach in defining taxonomic limits. It recognizes 59 orders and 415 families within the angiosperms.
Taxonomy is the classification of organisms based on their characteristics in order to understand relationships. It began over 300 years ago and was popularized by Linnaeus in the 1700s. Plants are classified into a taxonomic hierarchy of kingdom, division, class, order, family, genus, and species based on shared characteristics. Correct classification and naming of organisms is important for identification and understanding relationships between taxa.
The document discusses the classification of biodiversity. It explains that there is an internationally agreed binomial system for naming species, where each has a two-part scientific name. Species are classified into a hierarchy of taxa, and all organisms are classified into three domains: Archaea, Bacteria, and Eukaryota. Taxonomists sometimes reclassify species based on new genetic evidence about evolutionary relationships. Natural classifications are useful for identifying unknown species and predicting their characteristics.
Introduction to Taxonomy, Components and Major Plant TaxonomistKrissa Gatan
This document provides information on plant taxonomy, including definitions, history, key concepts, and the taxonomic classification system. Some main points:
- Taxonomy is the classification of organisms into a systematic arrangement based on similarities and differences. It began over 2,300 years ago and was greatly advanced by Carolus Linnaeus in the 18th century.
- The taxonomic system arranges organisms in a hierarchy of categories ranging from broad to specific, including kingdom, division, class, order, family, genus, and species.
- Scientific names follow binomial nomenclature, providing the genus and specific epithet. Classification aids identification, description, and understanding of relationships between taxa.
- Characteristics
photo of moss by Angie Jane Gray (1).pdfFamilyGray1
This study analyzed phylogenetic relationships within the class Sphagnopsida (peat mosses) using nucleotide sequences from the nuclear, plastid, and mitochondrial genomes. The results resolved three lineages within the Sphagnopsida: 1) Sphagnum sericeum, 2) S. inretortum plus Ambuchanania leucobryoides, and 3) all remaining species of Sphagnum. While sister relationships among these three clades could not be determined, the results indicate that the divergent morphology of A. leucobryoides is derived rather than ancestral. Based on these findings, a new classification of the Sphagnopsida is proposed with one order, three families,
The document discusses the evolution of biological classification systems from Linnaeus' initial two kingdom system to the current three domain system. It describes the key features used to classify organisms at different taxonomic levels and explains how modern evolutionary classification is based on phylogeny rather than just physical similarities. The increasing use of DNA evidence and molecular clocks to study evolutionary relationships is also summarized.
This document summarizes an article from the October 2008 issue of Plant Disease published by The American Phytopathological Society. It discusses why systematics, the study of biological diversity and classification of organisms, is important for plant pathogenic fungi. Specifically, it explains how scientific names are used to accurately define and communicate about organisms, and how names may change as systematic scientists learn more about relationships and accurately determine taxon concepts. It provides examples of how the scientific name for Armillaria mellea changed as new species were discovered within what was previously considered one species. The rules for scientific names of fungi and reasons for name changes are also summarized.
1. The document discusses the classification of organisms and the hierarchical system developed by Carolus Linnaeus.
2. It includes the seven main taxa from largest to smallest: kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species.
3. Evolutionary relationships can be shown through cladograms and phylogenic trees, which illustrate how organisms are related through shared ancestors and derived characteristics.
Bentham and Hooker's classification system from 1862 divided plants into three main classes - dicotyledons, gymnosperms, and monocotyledons - based on morphological features. Dicotyledons were further divided into three subclasses of polypetalae, gamopetalae, and monochlamydeae. This system focused on natural relationships between plants rather than artificial systems, and described over 97,000 species. Though it had some limitations like anomalous placements, it was a major natural system and paved the way for modern phylogenetic approaches.
This document provides information about the classification of living organisms. It begins by defining classification as the arrangement of organisms into groups and subgroups based on their similarities, differences, and relationships. It then describes the key advantages of classification, such as making the study of diverse organisms easier and revealing relationships between groups. The document outlines several systems and bases for classification, including whether cells are prokaryotic or eukaryotic, whether organisms are unicellular or multicellular, their mode of nutrition, and body organization. It also describes the five kingdom system proposed by Whitaker, which classified organisms into the kingdoms of Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia based on their cellular and nutritional
This document discusses the classification system of flowering plants developed by George Bentham and Joseph Dalton Hooker in the 19th century. It was one of the first comprehensive natural systems, grouping 202 orders (now families) of angiosperms based on their morphological and reproductive characteristics. Some of the major divisions in their system included monocotyledons, dicotyledons divided into polypetalae and gamopetalae based on their floral parts. Within polypetalae and gamopetalae were further subgroups like thalami florae, disci florae and calyci florae. The system had advantages of being natural and easy to follow but also drawbacks like placement of gymnosperms and neglect
This document summarizes the key points of the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (ICN). It outlines that the ICN governs the scientific naming of organisms traditionally treated as algae, fungi or plants. It was previously called the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN) but was changed to the ICN in 2011. The document reviews the principles and hierarchy of taxonomic ranks governed by the ICN as well as rules regarding valid publication, types, names, priority and conservation of certain scientific names.
This presentation explores a brief idea about the structural and functional attributes of nucleotides, the structure and function of genetic materials along with the impact of UV rays and pH upon them.
This presentation intends to explore the communication of the cell within and others for sustainability along the regulation mechanisms by the cellular neural networks and others to sing the song of the life.
Bioenergetics is an important domain in biology. This presentation has explored ATP production and its optimum utilization in biological systems along with certain theories and experiments to give a bird's eye view of this important issue.
This presentation offers the bird's eye view of the cell as the basic structural and functional unit of life. It also addresses the origin of eukaryotic cells from the prokaryotic cell by the endosymbiotic theory.
This PPT has been made to explore the plant classification in general and the classification as made by Bentham & Hooker for the classification of the flowering plants. It also offers the history of plant classification along with the merits and demerits of this aforesaid classification.
Energy and the biological systems are joined together and no biological world is almost impossible without ATP. This study material intends to explore the beauty of ATP to drive different biological processes.
This PPT offers a bird's eye view of ICBN and its different rules along with regulations for the naming of plants. It also highlights the history of IBC and its contribution to plant taxonomy.
This presentation intends to offer the basic features of plant metabolism along with the different types of mechanisms to regulate and control the metabolic pathways.
This presentation has been designed to give the foundation of taxonomy in general and Plant Taxonomy in particular as a matter of pleasure to explore the diversity of the plant world.
Sex and sexuality are very common words in biology but para-sexuality is a little bit uncommon, several organisms in general and fungi in particular have the pleasure of sexuality to bring variations by beside sex. This PPT explores the beauty of para-sexuality for the academic fraternity.
Sex life in fungi is not less fascinating than in other organisms. Heterosexuality is a matter of pleasure to explore the diversity of sex in fungi along with its cause and consequences. You can find a pleasure to go through the content.
This PowerPoint wants to explore the bird's eye view of the reproduction of bacteria in general and the genetic recombination of bacteria in particular.
The document discusses nutrition in bacteria. It explains that bacteria require carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, metals, and water for their biochemical processes. Bacteria are classified as autotrophs or heterotrophs based on their ability to produce or require organic carbon compounds. Autotrophs can produce organic compounds from inorganic sources like carbon dioxide, while heterotrophs require organic carbon sources. The document further describes different types of autotrophs and heterotrophs based on their energy and carbon sources. These include photoautotrophs, chemoautotrophs, photoheterotrophs, and chemoheterotrophs. Parasitic, saprophytic, and symbiotic bacteria are also discussed
This presentation explores the food value of mushrooms along with the long-term and short-term storage procedures. It also offers a detailed account of the nutrients that remain present in the edible mushrooms.
Cyanobacteria and their role in nitrogen fixation and rice cultivation are discussed. Cyanobacteria can live in many environments and colonize barren areas due to their photosynthetic abilities. They exist as unicellular, colonial, or filamentous forms. Some cyanobacteria can fix nitrogen symbiotically through associations with plants like Azolla. The Azolla-Anabaena association is an example of biological nitrogen fixation. Application of Azolla mats in rice fields can provide nitrogen and improve soil fertility and rice growth. Other factors like temperature, soil pH and nutrients also impact nitrogen fixation.
The document discusses the isolation and mass multiplication of Azospirillum bacteria for use as a biofertilizer. It describes the isolation process from plant roots using selective media. Mass multiplication is done by growing the bacteria in large fermenters with controlled temperature and agitation. The cultured bacteria are then mixed with an inert carrier like peat soil or lignite to produce packaged biofertilizer products containing approximately 109 cells/g. The document also outlines the benefits of using Azospirillum and other biofertilizers like Azotobacter for improving soil fertility and sustainability.
ESA/ACT Science Coffee: Diego Blas - Gravitational wave detection with orbita...Advanced-Concepts-Team
Presentation in the Science Coffee of the Advanced Concepts Team of the European Space Agency on the 07.06.2024.
Speaker: Diego Blas (IFAE/ICREA)
Title: Gravitational wave detection with orbital motion of Moon and artificial
Abstract:
In this talk I will describe some recent ideas to find gravitational waves from supermassive black holes or of primordial origin by studying their secular effect on the orbital motion of the Moon or satellites that are laser ranged.
The technology uses reclaimed CO₂ as the dyeing medium in a closed loop process. When pressurized, CO₂ becomes supercritical (SC-CO₂). In this state CO₂ has a very high solvent power, allowing the dye to dissolve easily.
PPT on Direct Seeded Rice presented at the three-day 'Training and Validation Workshop on Modules of Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) Technologies in South Asia' workshop on April 22, 2024.
hematic appreciation test is a psychological assessment tool used to measure an individual's appreciation and understanding of specific themes or topics. This test helps to evaluate an individual's ability to connect different ideas and concepts within a given theme, as well as their overall comprehension and interpretation skills. The results of the test can provide valuable insights into an individual's cognitive abilities, creativity, and critical thinking skills
The binding of cosmological structures by massless topological defectsSérgio Sacani
Assuming spherical symmetry and weak field, it is shown that if one solves the Poisson equation or the Einstein field
equations sourced by a topological defect, i.e. a singularity of a very specific form, the result is a localized gravitational
field capable of driving flat rotation (i.e. Keplerian circular orbits at a constant speed for all radii) of test masses on a thin
spherical shell without any underlying mass. Moreover, a large-scale structure which exploits this solution by assembling
concentrically a number of such topological defects can establish a flat stellar or galactic rotation curve, and can also deflect
light in the same manner as an equipotential (isothermal) sphere. Thus, the need for dark matter or modified gravity theory is
mitigated, at least in part.
Mending Clothing to Support Sustainable Fashion_CIMaR 2024.pdfSelcen Ozturkcan
Ozturkcan, S., Berndt, A., & Angelakis, A. (2024). Mending clothing to support sustainable fashion. Presented at the 31st Annual Conference by the Consortium for International Marketing Research (CIMaR), 10-13 Jun 2024, University of Gävle, Sweden.
EWOCS-I: The catalog of X-ray sources in Westerlund 1 from the Extended Weste...Sérgio Sacani
Context. With a mass exceeding several 104 M⊙ and a rich and dense population of massive stars, supermassive young star clusters
represent the most massive star-forming environment that is dominated by the feedback from massive stars and gravitational interactions
among stars.
Aims. In this paper we present the Extended Westerlund 1 and 2 Open Clusters Survey (EWOCS) project, which aims to investigate
the influence of the starburst environment on the formation of stars and planets, and on the evolution of both low and high mass stars.
The primary targets of this project are Westerlund 1 and 2, the closest supermassive star clusters to the Sun.
Methods. The project is based primarily on recent observations conducted with the Chandra and JWST observatories. Specifically,
the Chandra survey of Westerlund 1 consists of 36 new ACIS-I observations, nearly co-pointed, for a total exposure time of 1 Msec.
Additionally, we included 8 archival Chandra/ACIS-S observations. This paper presents the resulting catalog of X-ray sources within
and around Westerlund 1. Sources were detected by combining various existing methods, and photon extraction and source validation
were carried out using the ACIS-Extract software.
Results. The EWOCS X-ray catalog comprises 5963 validated sources out of the 9420 initially provided to ACIS-Extract, reaching a
photon flux threshold of approximately 2 × 10−8 photons cm−2
s
−1
. The X-ray sources exhibit a highly concentrated spatial distribution,
with 1075 sources located within the central 1 arcmin. We have successfully detected X-ray emissions from 126 out of the 166 known
massive stars of the cluster, and we have collected over 71 000 photons from the magnetar CXO J164710.20-455217.
Immersive Learning That Works: Research Grounding and Paths ForwardLeonel Morgado
We will metaverse into the essence of immersive learning, into its three dimensions and conceptual models. This approach encompasses elements from teaching methodologies to social involvement, through organizational concerns and technologies. Challenging the perception of learning as knowledge transfer, we introduce a 'Uses, Practices & Strategies' model operationalized by the 'Immersive Learning Brain' and ‘Immersion Cube’ frameworks. This approach offers a comprehensive guide through the intricacies of immersive educational experiences and spotlighting research frontiers, along the immersion dimensions of system, narrative, and agency. Our discourse extends to stakeholders beyond the academic sphere, addressing the interests of technologists, instructional designers, and policymakers. We span various contexts, from formal education to organizational transformation to the new horizon of an AI-pervasive society. This keynote aims to unite the iLRN community in a collaborative journey towards a future where immersive learning research and practice coalesce, paving the way for innovative educational research and practice landscapes.
The cost of acquiring information by natural selectionCarl Bergstrom
This is a short talk that I gave at the Banff International Research Station workshop on Modeling and Theory in Population Biology. The idea is to try to understand how the burden of natural selection relates to the amount of information that selection puts into the genome.
It's based on the first part of this research paper:
The cost of information acquisition by natural selection
Ryan Seamus McGee, Olivia Kosterlitz, Artem Kaznatcheev, Benjamin Kerr, Carl T. Bergstrom
bioRxiv 2022.07.02.498577; doi: https://doi.org/10.1101/2022.07.02.498577
3. A PRESENTATION BY
DR. N. SANNIGRAHI, ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR
DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY,
NISTARINI COLLEGE, PURULIA,
D.B. ROAD, PURULIA (W.B) INDIA, 723101
4. PLANT CLASSIFICATION
Until detailed genetic evidence became available, the classification of
flowering plants was based on their morphology (particularly that of the
flower) and their biochemistry (what kinds of chemical compound they
contained or produced). Classification systems were typically produced by
an individual botanist or by a small group. The result was a large number of
such systems. Different systems and their updates tended to be favored in
different countries; e.g. the Engler system in continental Europe; the
Bentham & Hooker system in Britain (particularly influential because it was
used by Kew); the Takhtajan system in the former Soviet Union and
countries within its sphere of influence; and the Cronquist system in the
United States. The Angiosperm Phylogeny Group, or APG, refers to an
informal international group of systematic botanists who came together to
try to establish a consensus view of the taxonomy of flowering plants
(angiosperms) that would reflect new knowledge about their relationships
based upon phylogenetic studies.
The Taxonomy being synthetic science has been developed from time to
time by the addition of value in every respect.
5. PLANT CLASSIFICATION
They set the most recent classification of flowering plants based on
phylogenetic data - the Angiosperm Phylogenetic Group classification. Its
four versions (APG I, APG II, APG III & APG IV) have been published in
1998, 2003, 2009 and 2016 respectively. Each version supplants the
previous version. Recognition of monophyletic group based on the
information received from various disciplines such as gross morphology,
anatomy, embryology, palynology, karyology, phytochemistry and more
strongly on molecular data with respect to DNA sequences of two
chloroplast genes (atpB and rbcL) and one nuclear gene (nuclearribosomal
18s DNA). The most recent updated version, APG IV (2016) recognized 64
orders and 416 families. Of these 416 families, 259 are represented in India.
The Plant classification is very dynamic one with the passage of time and
more and more data input from the different domains of knowledge has
ultimately made the journey more fascinating and colorful.
6. PLANT CLASSIFICATION & APG
In the early 1990s, the first large analyses of flowering plants based on
DNA sequences were published. These had become possible due to major
developments in DNA sequencing technology and computing power in the
late 20th century. Flowering plants were the first major group on which
large groups of scientists collaborated in comprehensive analyses of this
type, collecting sequences for the same genes, so that the data could be
combined. In 1993, a landmark paper with an analysis of 500 flowering
plants was published by Mark Chase, and co-authors, the year after Mark
moved from the University of North Carolina to Kew along with Brigittia
Bremer, Kare Bremer, Walter S. Judd, David J Mabberley, Peter F Stevens.
This paper was based on sequences of one of the major genes involved in
photosynthesis, and the analysis involved the botanists working with the
computer programmers because the program had to be rewritten to allow
them to analyze such a large data set. The Original APG system of Plant
classification based on cladistics analysis of DNA sequence .
7. PRINCIPLES OF APG SYSTEM
i. The principles of the APG’s approach to classification were set out in the
first paper of 1998 and it has remained unchanged in the subsequent
revisions like APGII, APGIII & APGIV. The basic principles are as
followed:
ii. The Linnaean system of orders and families should be retained.” The
family is central in flowering plant systematics”. An ordinal classification
of families as proposed as “reference tool of broad utility”. Orders are
treated for teaching and studying family relationship.
iii. Groups should be monophyletic i.e. all have been derived from common
ancestor. The main reason why existing systems are rejected because they
do not have the property , they are not phylogenetic.
iv. A broad approach is taken to defining the limits of the groups. Large
orders are considered more useful. Families with single genus and orders
having single family are kept out side. It is made so keeping monophyly
in view.
v. Named clades ate used to families and orders. The authors point out that
it is not possible or desirable to name all clades in phylogenetic tree;
naming some clades particularly orders and families make it easy to
exchange views and enhance discussion.
8. APG III CLASSIFICATION
The APGIII system (2009) of plant classification is the third version of its
kind mostly based on molecular taxonomy and it was published after 6 and
½ years of APG II plant classification. Members of the Linnaean society put
forth a formal phylogenetic classification of all land plants , compatible with
the APG III.The system consists of 45 orders on the taxonomic rank and 14
new ones. The newly recognized orders are Amborellales, Nymphaeales,
Chloranthales, Petrosaviales, Trochodendrales, Buxales, Vitales,
Zygophyllales, Picramniales, Huerteales. Berberidopsidales, Escalloniales,
Bruniales and Paracryphiales.
The alternative “Bracket families” were left out in APG III, because its
inclusion in the previous system had been unpopular .
APG III recognizes 415 families, 42 fewer than the previous system. $$ of
the 55 bracketed families were discontinued and 18 other families were
discontinued.
9. APG III CLASSIFICATION
The designation of alternative "bracketed families" was abandoned in APG
III, because its inclusion in the previous system had been unpopular. APG
III recognized 415 families, 42 fewer than in the previous system. Forty-
four of the 55 "bracketed families" were discontinued, and 18 other families
were discontinued as well. The discontinued bracketed families were:
Illiciaceae, Alliaceae, Agapanthaceae, Agavaceae, Aphyllanthaceae,
Hesperocallidaceae, Hyacinthaceae, Laxmanniaceae, Ruscaceae,
Themidaceae, Asphodelaceae, Hemerocallidaceae, Kingdoniaceae,
Fumariaceae, Pteridophyllaceae, Didymelaceae, Tetracentraceae,
Pterostemonaceae, Hypseocharitaceae, Francoaceae, Memecylaceae,
Lepuropetalaceae, Rhoipteleaceae, Medusagynaceae, Quiinaceae,
Malesherbiaceae, Turneraceae, Bretschneideraceae, Diegodendraceae,
Cochlospermaceae, Peganaceae, Tetradiclidaceae, Nyssaceae,
Ternstroemiaceae, Pellicieraceae, Aucubaceae, Donatiaceae, Lobeliaceae,
Desfontainiaceae, Diervillaceae, Dipsacaceae, Linnaeaceae, Morinaceae,
and Valerianaceae. The other discontinued families were: Limnocharitaceae,
Luzuriagaceae, Sparganiaceae, Ledocarpaceae, Heteropyxidaceae,
Psiloxylaceae, Oliniaceae, Rhynchocalycaceae, Parnassiaceae, Maesaceae,
Myrsinaceae, Theophrastaceae, Eremosynaceae, Polyosmaceae,
Tribelaceae, Aralidiaceae, Mackinlayaceae, and Melanophyllaceae
10. APG III CLASSIFICATION
20 families were accepted in the APG III system which had not been in the
previous system, and a few families were moved to a different position. The
newly recognized families are: Petermanniaceae, Schoepfiaceae,
Limeaceae, Lophiocarpaceae, Montiaceae, Talinaceae, Anacampserotaceae,
Centroplacaceae, Calophyllaceae, Guamatelaceae, Gerrardinaceae,
Dipentodontaceae, Capparidaceae, Cleomaceae, Cytinaceae,
Mitrastemonaceae, Metteniusaceae, Linderniaceae, Thomandersiaceae, and
Quintiniaceae. The number of families not placed in any order was reduced
from 39 to 10. Apodanthaceae and Cynomoriaceae were placed among the
angiosperms, incertae sedis, that is, not in any group within the
angiosperms. Eight other families were placed incertae sedis in various
supra-ordinal groups within the angiosperms. The unplaced families were:
Apodanthaceae, Cynomoriaceae, Dasypogonaceae, Sabiaceae, Dilleniaceae,
Icacinaceae, Metteniusaceae, Oncothecaceae, Vahliaceae, and
Boraginaceae. The circumscription of the family Icacinaceae remains
especially doubtful. Apodytes, Emmotum, Cassinopsis, and a few other
genera were provisionally retained within it until further studies can
determine whether they properly belong there.
11. APG III CLASSIFICATION
Three genera (Gumillea, Nicobariodendron, and Petenaea) were placed
within the angiosperms incertae sedis. Gumillea had been unplaced in APG
II. Nicobariodendron and Petenaea were newly added to the list. The
classification is shown below in two versions. The short version goes to the
level of orders and of families unplaced in an order. The detailed version
shows all the families. Orders at the same level in the classification are
arranged alphabetically. Note that orders may not contain the same families
as in earlier versions of the APG system (APG system, APG II system).
Chase & Reveal ( 2009) gave a formal classification of land plants mainly
considering the algae in APG III. To keep harmony between hierarchical
classification and APG system, all land plants were included under
Equisetopsida. Angiosperm are divided into 15 super orders. All total 56
orders are listed of which, two Chloranthales are unplaced . Further seven
families could not be accommodated.
13. MERITS OF THE CLASSIFICATION
i. The system shows monophyly origin in groups,
ii. The system covers the multiple data from morphology, anatomy,
embryology, phytochemistry & molecular data.
iii. Groups names up to orders have been assigned,
iv. Traditional divisions of the angiosperms into monocotyledons and
dicotyledons has not been taken into account. Many monocots are put in
between primitive angiosperms and eudicots. It can solve the problem of
paraphyly among monocots and dicots in the early stages.
v. A number of cladograms in the classification shows general affinities
between the various groups of organisms.
vi. Primitive families are placed at the beginning of the angiosperms.
vii. The merger of Budlejaceae and Myotoraceae with Scrophulariaceae have
been supported from morphological and molecular evidences given by
Bremer et.al (2001) and Olmstead et.al (2001).
viii. Multigene analysis and morphological data are the basis on which
Winteraceae and Cancellaceae are kept under the same order.
14. MERITS & DEMERITS OF THE CLASSIFICATION
Family Agavaceae includes genera like Hosta, Camassina and Chlorogalum
and it becomes more wide. This justification has been supported by Judd
et.al (2002) and Thorne.
Monophyletic concept is reflected in Malvaceae where families like
Tiliaceae, Sterculariaceae and Bombaceae are included in the former. This
inclusion is supported by molecular as well as morphological data.
Asclepidaceae has been merged with Apocynaceae. This view is supported
and strengthened by Judd et.al (1994) from molecular evidence.
The concept of bracketed families in earlier APG has been removed in APG
III.
DEMERITS
This classification is only applicable up to families. This system is not
suitable for identification of flora in the true sense.
The fate of some unplaced families and few replaced genera is still
uncertain.
Botanical nomenclature Code has not been assigned to new group.
15. ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Google for images,
Different websites for content and enrichment,
Text Book of Plant Systematics- Chittaranjan Mohanty
Plant Taxonomy by O.P. Sharma,
Taxonomy of angiosperms- Nayek.
Plant Taxonomy- Gurucharan Singh
A text Book of Botany- Hait, Bhattacharyya & Ghosh
Advanced Plant Taxonomy- A.K. Mondal.
Disclaimer: This presentation has been developed to enrich free open source
of the study materials for Biology students without any financial issues.