Introduction, electromagnetic spectrum, electromagnetic distance measurement, types of EDM instruments, electronic digital theodolites, total station, digital levels, scanners for topographical survey, global positioning system.
Edm is a surveying instrument used to measure the distance electronically. This Surveying Instrument is used in triangulation to measure the length of Base line because more accuracy is required to measure the length of base line.
Surveying is an important part of Civil engineering. Various part like theodolite, plane table surveying, computation of area and volume are useful for all university examination and other competitive examination
Edm is a surveying instrument used to measure the distance electronically. This Surveying Instrument is used in triangulation to measure the length of Base line because more accuracy is required to measure the length of base line.
Surveying is an important part of Civil engineering. Various part like theodolite, plane table surveying, computation of area and volume are useful for all university examination and other competitive examination
The Global Positioning System is a satellite-based radio navigation system for determination of precise position and time, using radio signals from the satellites, in real-time or in post-processing mode.
MODERN SURVEYING TECHNIQUES
WHAT IS SURVEYING?
•Surveyingisdefinedasthescienceofmakingmeasurementsespeciallyoftheearthsurface.Thisisbeingdonebyfindingoutthespatiallocation(relative/absolute)ofpointsonorneartheearthsurface.
•Differentmethodandinstrumentarebeingused
in this section the study of the various classification of the surveying. which based the surveying is classified and how many types of the surveying? all this is presented in this slide.
and that slide how it work?
Surveying is considered as one of the oldest field of Civil Engineering. As days passes we can see lot of improvements in technology. In this ppt we can able to see latest instruments used for surveying
What is a Total Station?
Capability of a Total Station
Important Operations of Total Station
Uses of Total Station
Advantages of Using Total Stations
Applications
EDM-Electronic Distance Measurement by Denis Jangeed.pptxDenish Jangid
EDM-Electronic Distance Measurement by Denis Jangeed
Origin of Electronic Distance Measurement
Principle of E.D.M. (Electronic Distance Measurements), Modulation,
Types of E.D.M., Distomat,
advantages and application.
electromagnetic waves
EDM Range 100 KM
EDM accuracy of 1 in 105
Electromagnetic Spectrum Range
microwaves, infrared waves and visible light waves
Measurement of distance with EDM and a Reflector
Classification of Electronic Distance Measurement Instrument
EDM instruments are classified based on the type of carrier wave as
Microwave instruments
Infrared wave instruments
Light wave instruments.
Parts of EDM instruments
Geodimeter
Tellurometer
Distomat
Errors in EDM
The Global Positioning System is a satellite-based radio navigation system for determination of precise position and time, using radio signals from the satellites, in real-time or in post-processing mode.
MODERN SURVEYING TECHNIQUES
WHAT IS SURVEYING?
•Surveyingisdefinedasthescienceofmakingmeasurementsespeciallyoftheearthsurface.Thisisbeingdonebyfindingoutthespatiallocation(relative/absolute)ofpointsonorneartheearthsurface.
•Differentmethodandinstrumentarebeingused
in this section the study of the various classification of the surveying. which based the surveying is classified and how many types of the surveying? all this is presented in this slide.
and that slide how it work?
Surveying is considered as one of the oldest field of Civil Engineering. As days passes we can see lot of improvements in technology. In this ppt we can able to see latest instruments used for surveying
What is a Total Station?
Capability of a Total Station
Important Operations of Total Station
Uses of Total Station
Advantages of Using Total Stations
Applications
EDM-Electronic Distance Measurement by Denis Jangeed.pptxDenish Jangid
EDM-Electronic Distance Measurement by Denis Jangeed
Origin of Electronic Distance Measurement
Principle of E.D.M. (Electronic Distance Measurements), Modulation,
Types of E.D.M., Distomat,
advantages and application.
electromagnetic waves
EDM Range 100 KM
EDM accuracy of 1 in 105
Electromagnetic Spectrum Range
microwaves, infrared waves and visible light waves
Measurement of distance with EDM and a Reflector
Classification of Electronic Distance Measurement Instrument
EDM instruments are classified based on the type of carrier wave as
Microwave instruments
Infrared wave instruments
Light wave instruments.
Parts of EDM instruments
Geodimeter
Tellurometer
Distomat
Errors in EDM
LPC2138 Based Temperature Compensated Ultrasonic Ranging For Blind Personpaperpublications3
Abstract: This paper is intended to provide a theoretical model of object detection and real time assistance via Global Positioning System (GPS).This paper aims at the development of an Electronic Travelling Aid (ETA) kit to help the blind people to find obstacle free path. This ETA is fixed to the stick of the blind people. When the object is detected near to the blinds’ stick it alerts them with the help of vibratory circuit. Ultrasonic sensors are used to evaluate distance of the objects around the blind person to guide the user towards the secure and available path. Output is in the form of vibrations which the blind person can easily recognize. The hardware of entire system contains ARM7 (LPC2138), temperature sensor, ultrasonic sensors and mobile vibrator, Global positioning system (GPS) module and Global System for Mobile (GSM) module. It contains temperature compensation method to reduce the error in measurement of distance using ultrasonic sensors.
Abstract: The challenges faced by the blind people in their everyday lives are not well understood, obstacle avoidance problem is an essential part of navigation for the blind. The challenging task is to work with a path where the environment is completely unknown .This paper contains a method to implement a mobility aid for blind person, it provides the information to avoid obstacles distance based on ultrasonic sensors and this also can be used in automatic robots, self-propelling vehicles in automated production factories etc. Model contains signal processing unit with MSP430 microcontroller which receives data from Ultrasonic sensor then process it and gives alert to the blind person using voice processor with earphone/speaker.
Role of Indian Railways in National Development, Basic requirement of railway alignment and functions of Permanent Way, Types of components and functions: Gauge, Rail, Fittings, Ballast, Embankments, Subgrade. Purpose: Coning of wheel, Super-elevation, points and crossing, signalling and interlocking, yard, junction and terminal.
Objective and classification of highway maintenance works. Distresses and maintenance measures in flexible and rigid pavements. Concept of pavement evaluation: Functional and Structural
2.4 HIGHWAY TRANSPORTATION : DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF PAVEMENT (TRE) 315061...VATSAL PATEL
Pavement component functions, factors affecting pavement design and basic pavement design of Flexible and Rigid pavement as per IRC guidelines, Steps for construction of highway on embankment and in cutting. Construction of embankment and subgrade, soil stabilization. Flexible Pavement: Construction of Granular Sub-Base/Drainage layer, Construction of Granular Base Course-WBM and WMM, Construction of bituminous pavement layers- base course and surface course, prime coat and tack coat. Rigid Pavement: Types of cement concrete pavement, components of cement concrete pavement and its functions, construction of cement concrete pavement, joints in cement concrete pavement-function and construction
Characteristics of good seaport and principles of seaport planning, size of seaport, site selection criteria and layout of seaport, Dry ports, Bulk cargo, Transshipment ports, Port of call, Surveys to be carried out for seaport planning, regional and intercontinental transportation development, forecasting cargo & passenger demand, regional connectivity, cargo handling capacity of port.
Components of highway pavement and materials used. Soil: Importance, Desirable properties, Index properties, Compaction, Strength evaluation tests. Aggregate: Functions, Desirable properties, Tests on road aggregates and quality control. Bituminous binders: Functions, Desirable properties, Tests on bitumen and quality control, Bitumen emulsion functions and classification, Modified bituminous binder functions and classification. Bituminous Mix: Desirable properties and requirement of design mix, general approach for design of bituminous mixes and introduction to Marshall Mix Design Method
5. PORT AMENITIES & OPERATIONS (PHE) GTU 3170623VATSAL PATEL
Ferry, Transfer bridges, floating landing stages, transit sheds, warehouses, cold storage, aprons, cargo handling equipment, purpose and general description: stack area, single point mooring, IS provisions
Wind, Tides, Water waves, Wind rose and wave rose diagrams, wave diffraction, breaking, reflection, Littoral drift, sediment transport, Effects on Harbor and structure design.
1. INTRODUCTION TO WATER TRANSPORTATION (PHE) GTU 3170623VATSAL PATEL
History, Scope, Merits, Developments of Water Transportation in India, Inland waterways, River, Canal, Inland water transportation, Harbor, Port, Dock, Development of Ports & Harbors, classification, Harbor site selection, Harbor dimensioning.
2.1 HIGHWAY TRANSPORTATION : HIGHWAY PLANNING AND DEVELOPMENT (TRE) 3150611 GTUVATSAL PATEL
Introduction: Highway planning and development in India, Classification of Rural and Urban roads, Highway alignment and surveys, Preparation of Detailed Project Report
Importance of Transportation, Different modes of transportation, Overview of Road, Rail, Air and Water Transportation, Comparison of various modes of Transportation. Organizations and their functions - Central Road Research Institute (CRRI), Indian Road Congress (IRC), Railway Board (RB), Inland Waterways Authority of India (IWAI), Airport Authority of India (AAI), International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), Directorate General of Civil Aviation (DGCA).
Introduction, types of errors, definitions, laws of accidental errors, laws of weights, theory of least squares, rules for giving weights and distribution of errors to the field observations, determination of the most probable values of quantities.
Welcome to WIPAC Monthly the magazine brought to you by the LinkedIn Group Water Industry Process Automation & Control.
In this month's edition, along with this month's industry news to celebrate the 13 years since the group was created we have articles including
A case study of the used of Advanced Process Control at the Wastewater Treatment works at Lleida in Spain
A look back on an article on smart wastewater networks in order to see how the industry has measured up in the interim around the adoption of Digital Transformation in the Water Industry.
Courier management system project report.pdfKamal Acharya
It is now-a-days very important for the people to send or receive articles like imported furniture, electronic items, gifts, business goods and the like. People depend vastly on different transport systems which mostly use the manual way of receiving and delivering the articles. There is no way to track the articles till they are received and there is no way to let the customer know what happened in transit, once he booked some articles. In such a situation, we need a system which completely computerizes the cargo activities including time to time tracking of the articles sent. This need is fulfilled by Courier Management System software which is online software for the cargo management people that enables them to receive the goods from a source and send them to a required destination and track their status from time to time.
TECHNICAL TRAINING MANUAL GENERAL FAMILIARIZATION COURSEDuvanRamosGarzon1
AIRCRAFT GENERAL
The Single Aisle is the most advanced family aircraft in service today, with fly-by-wire flight controls.
The A318, A319, A320 and A321 are twin-engine subsonic medium range aircraft.
The family offers a choice of engines
Forklift Classes Overview by Intella PartsIntella Parts
Discover the different forklift classes and their specific applications. Learn how to choose the right forklift for your needs to ensure safety, efficiency, and compliance in your operations.
For more technical information, visit our website https://intellaparts.com
Final project report on grocery store management system..pdfKamal Acharya
In today’s fast-changing business environment, it’s extremely important to be able to respond to client needs in the most effective and timely manner. If your customers wish to see your business online and have instant access to your products or services.
Online Grocery Store is an e-commerce website, which retails various grocery products. This project allows viewing various products available enables registered users to purchase desired products instantly using Paytm, UPI payment processor (Instant Pay) and also can place order by using Cash on Delivery (Pay Later) option. This project provides an easy access to Administrators and Managers to view orders placed using Pay Later and Instant Pay options.
In order to develop an e-commerce website, a number of Technologies must be studied and understood. These include multi-tiered architecture, server and client-side scripting techniques, implementation technologies, programming language (such as PHP, HTML, CSS, JavaScript) and MySQL relational databases. This is a project with the objective to develop a basic website where a consumer is provided with a shopping cart website and also to know about the technologies used to develop such a website.
This document will discuss each of the underlying technologies to create and implement an e- commerce website.
Explore the innovative world of trenchless pipe repair with our comprehensive guide, "The Benefits and Techniques of Trenchless Pipe Repair." This document delves into the modern methods of repairing underground pipes without the need for extensive excavation, highlighting the numerous advantages and the latest techniques used in the industry.
Learn about the cost savings, reduced environmental impact, and minimal disruption associated with trenchless technology. Discover detailed explanations of popular techniques such as pipe bursting, cured-in-place pipe (CIPP) lining, and directional drilling. Understand how these methods can be applied to various types of infrastructure, from residential plumbing to large-scale municipal systems.
Ideal for homeowners, contractors, engineers, and anyone interested in modern plumbing solutions, this guide provides valuable insights into why trenchless pipe repair is becoming the preferred choice for pipe rehabilitation. Stay informed about the latest advancements and best practices in the field.
CFD Simulation of By-pass Flow in a HRSG module by R&R Consult.pptxR&R Consult
CFD analysis is incredibly effective at solving mysteries and improving the performance of complex systems!
Here's a great example: At a large natural gas-fired power plant, where they use waste heat to generate steam and energy, they were puzzled that their boiler wasn't producing as much steam as expected.
R&R and Tetra Engineering Group Inc. were asked to solve the issue with reduced steam production.
An inspection had shown that a significant amount of hot flue gas was bypassing the boiler tubes, where the heat was supposed to be transferred.
R&R Consult conducted a CFD analysis, which revealed that 6.3% of the flue gas was bypassing the boiler tubes without transferring heat. The analysis also showed that the flue gas was instead being directed along the sides of the boiler and between the modules that were supposed to capture the heat. This was the cause of the reduced performance.
Based on our results, Tetra Engineering installed covering plates to reduce the bypass flow. This improved the boiler's performance and increased electricity production.
It is always satisfying when we can help solve complex challenges like this. Do your systems also need a check-up or optimization? Give us a call!
Work done in cooperation with James Malloy and David Moelling from Tetra Engineering.
More examples of our work https://www.r-r-consult.dk/en/cases-en/
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Hybrid optimization of pumped hydro system and solar- Engr. Abdul-Azeez.pdffxintegritypublishin
Advancements in technology unveil a myriad of electrical and electronic breakthroughs geared towards efficiently harnessing limited resources to meet human energy demands. The optimization of hybrid solar PV panels and pumped hydro energy supply systems plays a pivotal role in utilizing natural resources effectively. This initiative not only benefits humanity but also fosters environmental sustainability. The study investigated the design optimization of these hybrid systems, focusing on understanding solar radiation patterns, identifying geographical influences on solar radiation, formulating a mathematical model for system optimization, and determining the optimal configuration of PV panels and pumped hydro storage. Through a comparative analysis approach and eight weeks of data collection, the study addressed key research questions related to solar radiation patterns and optimal system design. The findings highlighted regions with heightened solar radiation levels, showcasing substantial potential for power generation and emphasizing the system's efficiency. Optimizing system design significantly boosted power generation, promoted renewable energy utilization, and enhanced energy storage capacity. The study underscored the benefits of optimizing hybrid solar PV panels and pumped hydro energy supply systems for sustainable energy usage. Optimizing the design of solar PV panels and pumped hydro energy supply systems as examined across diverse climatic conditions in a developing country, not only enhances power generation but also improves the integration of renewable energy sources and boosts energy storage capacities, particularly beneficial for less economically prosperous regions. Additionally, the study provides valuable insights for advancing energy research in economically viable areas. Recommendations included conducting site-specific assessments, utilizing advanced modeling tools, implementing regular maintenance protocols, and enhancing communication among system components.
Saudi Arabia stands as a titan in the global energy landscape, renowned for its abundant oil and gas resources. It's the largest exporter of petroleum and holds some of the world's most significant reserves. Let's delve into the top 10 oil and gas projects shaping Saudi Arabia's energy future in 2024.
Cosmetic shop management system project report.pdfKamal Acharya
Buying new cosmetic products is difficult. It can even be scary for those who have sensitive skin and are prone to skin trouble. The information needed to alleviate this problem is on the back of each product, but it's thought to interpret those ingredient lists unless you have a background in chemistry.
Instead of buying and hoping for the best, we can use data science to help us predict which products may be good fits for us. It includes various function programs to do the above mentioned tasks.
Data file handling has been effectively used in the program.
The automated cosmetic shop management system should deal with the automation of general workflow and administration process of the shop. The main processes of the system focus on customer's request where the system is able to search the most appropriate products and deliver it to the customers. It should help the employees to quickly identify the list of cosmetic product that have reached the minimum quantity and also keep a track of expired date for each cosmetic product. It should help the employees to find the rack number in which the product is placed.It is also Faster and more efficient way.
Immunizing Image Classifiers Against Localized Adversary Attacksgerogepatton
This paper addresses the vulnerability of deep learning models, particularly convolutional neural networks
(CNN)s, to adversarial attacks and presents a proactive training technique designed to counter them. We
introduce a novel volumization algorithm, which transforms 2D images into 3D volumetric representations.
When combined with 3D convolution and deep curriculum learning optimization (CLO), itsignificantly improves
the immunity of models against localized universal attacks by up to 40%. We evaluate our proposed approach
using contemporary CNN architectures and the modified Canadian Institute for Advanced Research (CIFAR-10
and CIFAR-100) and ImageNet Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge (ILSVRC12) datasets, showcasing
accuracy improvements over previous techniques. The results indicate that the combination of the volumetric
input and curriculum learning holds significant promise for mitigating adversarial attacks without necessitating
adversary training.
Immunizing Image Classifiers Against Localized Adversary Attacks
9. MORDAN SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS (SUR) 3140601 GTU
1. 1
PREPARED BY : ASST. PROF. VATSAL D. PATEL
MAHATMA GANDHI INSTITUTE OF
TECHNICAL EDUCATION &
RESEARCH CENTRE, NAVSARI.
2. In surveying, the distance is usually measured directly with a
tape or a chain. This method is known as Direct Distance
Measurement (DDM).
Fairly good accuracy can be achieved.
It is difficult when any type of the obstruction is occurred.
Expensive and time consuming method.
2
3. The distance can be measured indirectly using optical distance
measuring instruments called tachometers. This method is
known as Optical Distance Measurement (ODM).
Not suitable where high accuracy is required. This method is
used to measure the short distance because the ranging of
tachometer is 100 to150m.
3
4. Electronic Distance Measuring (EDM) instrument have been
recently developed.
High accuracy distance measured.
EDM is a one type of the modern instrument to measure the
distance between the two visible point.
4
5. In EDM instruments, the electromagnetic waves are generated
and transmitted. It depends on many factors but principally, on
the nature of the electrical signal used to generate the waves.
In it, no medium are required and can travels in vacuum.
EDM method is based on generation, propagation, reflection,
subsequent reception of electromagnetic waves.
5
6. Electromagnetic waves are quite complex in nature. However,
in the simplest form these can be represented as periodic
sinusoidal waves shown in fig.
6
7. The wave completes a cycle in moving from identical points
likeAto E or B to F or C to G or D to H.
The number of cycles completed by the wave in one second is
called frequency (f) of the wave.
7
8. The length traversed in x-direction by the wave when it
complete one cycle is termed as wave length.
It is equal to distance which separates two identical point. (λ)
8
9. The time taken by the wave to travel through one cycle, a
distance equal to one wave length is termed as period. (T)
The velocity (v) of the wave is the distance travelled by in one
second.
9
10. Another property of the wave, known as phase of the wave,
and denoted by symbol Φ is often quoted in degree.
It varies from 0° to 360° for one cycle.
10
12. Electromagnetic waves are energy carrying waves.
They carry composite energy due to electrical and magnetic
fields.
Type of electromagnetic waves is known by its wave length
or frequency.
All the travel with a velocity 3 X 108 m/s.
These include Y–rays, X–rays, ultraviolet rays, visible light,
infrared rays, microwaves and radio waves.
12
13. There are three type of the waves commonly used in EDM :
Microwaves
Infrared waves
Visible light
13
14. This instrument is used to find the distance between two point
with the help of the EDM. The accuracy of this instrument is
very good as compare the other distance measure instrument.
Eliminate the chaining and or taping and easy to handle and
operate.
14
15. The basic principle is the indirect determination of the time
required for a light beam to travel between two stations.
EDM is based upon the measurement of phase difference
between the transmit and received signals.
15
16. Depending upon the type of carrier wave employed, EDM
instruments can be classified under the following three heads :
16
Microwave instruments
Visible light instruments
Infrared instruments
17. First develop in south Africa in 1950s.
It comes under long range category instruments.
It’s range is 3 to 30 GHz.
Transmitted over long distance like 100 km.
Tellurometer comes under this categories.
Tellurometer was the first instrument which used microwaves
in measurement of distance for surveying purpose.
17
18. The electro-optical EDM instruments use visible light.
A geodimeter comes under this type of the categories.
Range of this instrument is 5 km to 25 km. 5 km during day
time ranging and 25 km in night time ranging.
The first generation of these instruments was developed in
Sweden in the early 1950s by Dr. Erik Bergstrand.
Frequencies used in the visible light instrument is of the order
5 X 1014 Hz.
18
19. The instrument in which a beam of light is used as the carries
and which gets back reflected from a kind of mirror located at
the other end.
At the one end active instrument and one battery are required
and at the other end one mirror provide at the other end.
They are suitable for small distance measurement.
In infrared EDM instruments, the near infrared radiation band
of wavelength 0.9 X 10-6 m is used as a carrier wave.
19
20. There are different EDM instruments like :
20
Tellurometer
Geodimeter
Distomats
21. It is an electromagnetic device used to measure distance.
It was invented by Dr. T.L Wadley of South African National
Institute for Telecommunication Research.
In this type of the instrument radio waves are used instead of
light waves. System consist of two identical units, master
instrument & remote instrument.
21
22. Two operators can speak to each other using telephonic sets
connected to the instrument.
The low frequency waves are used for the measurement.
Master transmitted a series of microwaves and pickup by the
remote. Distance are measure with the help of the radio waves.
The tellurometer is a first instrument to measure instrument
with light weight power supply of 12 volts or 24 volts.
22
23. A Geodimeter is a first-generation electro-optical instrument,
developed by Dr. E. Bergstrand of Sweden in 1950.
Instrument use light waves. The instrument has transmitter and
receiver. A 12 volt battery source is essential.
The light beam is directed on to a reflector at the other end of
the line which is measured.
The reflector reflect back to the transmitter.
23
24. Distomats are latest in the series of EDM instrument.
Wild heerbrugg manufacture EDM instrument under the trade
name “Distomat”, having the following popular models :
Distomat DI 1000
Distomat DI 5S
Distamat DI 3000
Distomat DIOR 3002
Tachymat TC 2000
24
25. The use of Distomat is similar to that of tellurometer.
Two instrument are used at both the end of the measured point.
Communication system is provided.
The range of instrument is 20 m to 150000 m.
Distance is automatically displayed on screen.
25
26. They are very precise and convenient to use.
Design is same as an optical theodolite.
They contain circular encoders.
Convert horizontal and vertical angles electronically.
They display values of angles LCD or LED.
26
27. It is combination of electronic theodolite and EDM.
The various surveying operations are linear measurements,
angular measurements, elevation measurements, co-ordinate
measurement etc.
Linear measurement: we use direct or indirect methods of
measuring linear measurements.
Angular measurement: we use prismatic compass, vernier
transit theodolite, microptic theodolite, electronic digital
theodolite.
27
28. Elevation measurement: we use dumpy level, tilting level,
auto level, digital electronic level.
Co-ordinate measurement: we run theodolite traverse,
measure lengths, angles and then calculate consecutive and
independent co-ordinates.
For all the above instrument solution is total station.
28
29. It measures distance and displays horizontal distance and also
slope distance.
It gives difference in height or elevations.
It measure the angle and display horizontal as well as vertical
angle also.
It measure the height above datum.
It measures coordinates also.
29
30. The total station is equipped with nine type (or more) of
special surveying programs.
Distance Stake out measurement: By inputting the distance
to be determine by the machine, the difference between that
distance and the actual measured value is displayed.
Lot staking measurement: The input distance from the
designs or the measured distance, can be divided into N equal
sections, and separate sections measured.
30
31. Offset point measurement: This function enable the widths
to be right and left of a center line to be measured easily, by
setting the instrument on the center.
Remote Elevation measurement (REM): A prism (base
point) positioned almost directly underneath the desired
location is measured, to determine the height to the target
object.
31
32. Remote Distance Measurement (RDM): This function is
used to measure the horizontal distance, height differential,
slope, distance, and % grade between two points.
Coordinates measurement: This enables the coordinates of a
target point to be determined, using the instrument point as an
origin point.
Resection measurement: Two known points (A and B) can
be measured to determine the instrument point coordinate.
32
33. Traverse measurement: Based on given “instrument point
coordinates and backsight coordinates” or on “instrument
point coordinates and directional angle”, the coordinates of a
new point can be determine.
Coordinates stake out: Based on given “instrument point
coordinates, backsight coordinates and measurement point
coordinates” or on “instrument point coordinates and
directional angle”, three dimensional coordinate carried out.
33
35. The main function of GPS system is to provide (Display)
coordinates: Latitude, longitude, elevation above mean sea
level and time, of place occupied by GPS receiver.
The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a worldwide radio-
navigation system formed from a constellation of 24 satellites
and their ground stations.
35
36. The basis of the GPS is a constellation of satellites that are
continuously orbiting the earth. These satellites, which are
equipped with atomic clocks, transmit radio signals that
contain their exact location, time, and other information.
36