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Organisms can be grouped based on whether their cells contain nuclei. Prokaryotes are single-celled organisms without nuclei, including bacteria and archaea. Eukaryotes have cells with nuclei and include protists, fungi, plants, and animals. Prokaryotes are the most diverse but also the simplest organisms, while eukaryotic cells are generally larger and more complex due to the presence of a nucleus.
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Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells differ in several key ways. Prokaryotes lack a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles, while eukaryotes have complex internal membranes and organelles. It is believed that eukaryotes evolved from prokaryotes through endosymbiosis and membrane infolding. While both share some similarities like DNA, RNA, ribosomes and cell membranes, eukaryotes have additional structures like the nucleus, mitochondria, Golgi apparatus and cytoskeleton not found in prokaryotes. The differences in cell structure, DNA organization and replication, and reproduction processes distinguish prokaryotes from eukaryotes.
Diversity in living organisms
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Kingdom Archaebacteria (Microbiology)
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Prokaryotes and eukaryotes powerpoint
Prokaryotic cells like bacteria lack membrane-bound organelles and have no nucleus, while eukaryotic cells found in plants and animals have a membrane-bound nucleus and organelles like mitochondria. The main differences between prokaryotes and eukaryotes are that prokaryotes have simpler cell structures like circular DNA and plasma membranes without sterols, whereas eukaryotes have more complex structures like linear chromosomes, histones, and internal organelles. Gene transfer also differs between the two groups, with prokaryotes using transduction, conjugation, and transformation, while eukaryotes rely mainly
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This document provides information about eukaryotes and prokaryotes. It defines eukaryotes as organisms with DNA contained in the nucleus, while prokaryotes lack a nucleus. Eukaryotes have organelles like the nucleus that provide advantages such as additional DNA protection. Examples of eukaryotes include plants, animals, fungi, and protists. Prokaryotes are smaller single-celled organisms divided into bacteria and archaea. They live in many environments and some can withstand extreme conditions. While few are pathogenic, many prokaryotes interact with other organisms in beneficial ways like nutrient cycling. Examples of prokaryotes given are E. coli, Methanosarcina smithii
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Class 9 bio ch 3 diversity in living organisms part 1
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The document discusses the origins and early evolution of life on Earth. It describes some of the conditions on the early Earth and how simple organic compounds may have formed through atmospheric reactions, hydrothermal vents, or delivery by meteorites. It also discusses experiments that demonstrate how self-assembly of these molecules could have led to the first protocells and metabolism, as well as the possible emergence of RNA prior to DNA as the genetic material. The document then covers the divergence of bacteria and archaea, the rise of oxygen due to cyanobacteria, the appearance of eukaryotes, and current hypotheses about the endosymbiotic origins of organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts.
8.6
Common joint injuries include cartilage tears, ligament sprains, and dislocations. Cartilage tears can cause locking or binding of the joint and are repaired through arthroscopic surgery. Ligament sprains occur when ligaments are stretched or torn, and require immobilization or surgical repair. Dislocations involve bones being forced out of alignment, accompanied by sprains and inflammation.
Inflammatory and degenerative joint conditions include bursitis, tendonitis, and various forms of arthritis. Bursitis and tendonitis involve inflammation of the bursa and tendon sheaths, usually from overuse. Arthritis encompasses over 100 diseases that damage joints, with osteoarthritis being the most common and involving breakdown of cartilage
8.4
Synovial joints have six general features including articular cartilage, a joint cavity, an articular capsule, synovial fluid, ligaments, and blood vessels. They allow movements like gliding, angular movements like flexion and extension, and rotation. Stability is influenced by factors like bone shape, ligaments, and muscle tone. There are six types of synovial joints classified by their shape and motion: plane, hinge, pivot, condylar, saddle, and ball-and-socket.
8.3
Cartilaginous joints unite bones through cartilage and have little movement. There are two types: synchondroses unite bones through a hyaline cartilage plate and are immovable, examples include epiphyseal plates in children; symphyses unite bones through fibrocartilage and allow some movement, examples include intervertebral discs and the pubic symphysis.
8.2
Fibrous joints are immovable joints joined by dense connective tissue fibers. There are three types: sutures which are rigid interlocking skull joints that allow growth; syndesmoses where bones are connected by ligaments of varying fiber length, allowing some movement; and gomphoses which are peg-in-socket joints like teeth in sockets held by the periodontal ligament.
8.1
Joints are where two or more bones meet, giving mobility to the skeleton while holding it together. There are two main classifications of joints - structural and functional. Structurally, joints are classified into three types based on the material binding them and whether a cavity is present: fibrous, cartilaginous, and synovial. The document will focus on the clearer structural classifications.
8.5 no vids
The document describes several synovial joints: the knee, shoulder, elbow, and hip. The knee is the largest and most complex joint, consisting of the femoropatellar joint and medial/lateral tibiofemoral joints. The shoulder has the most freedom of movement but lacks stability. The elbow acts as a hinge joint for flexion/extension. The hip is a ball-and-socket joint with the spherical femoral head fitting into the deep acetabulum.
8.5
The document describes several synovial joints, focusing on the knee, shoulder, and elbow joints. It provides details on:
- The knee joint is the largest and most complex joint, consisting of the femoropatellar joint and medial/lateral tibiofemoral joints. It allows flexion/extension and some rotation. Cruciate ligaments and menisci help stabilize the joint.
- The shoulder joint is the most freely moving but least stable joint, with a large humeral head fitting into a shallow glenoid cavity. Rotator cuff muscles and the long head of the biceps brachii provide stability.
- The elbow joint is a hinge joint formed by the tro
8.4
Synovial joints have six general features including articular cartilage, a joint cavity, an articular capsule, synovial fluid, ligaments, and blood vessels. They allow movements like gliding, angular movements like flexion and extension, and rotation. Stability is influenced by factors like bone shape, ligaments, and muscle tone. There are six types of synovial joints classified by their shape and motion: plane, hinge, pivot, condylar, saddle, and ball-and-socket.
6.7
Fractures occur when bones break. There are three classifications of fractures based on the position of bone ends, completeness of the break, and whether the skin is penetrated. Treatment involves realigning the broken bone ends through closed or open reduction and immobilizing the bone to heal. Bone repair occurs in four stages - hematoma formation, fibrocartilaginous callus formation, bony callus formation, and bone remodeling to reconstruct the original bone structure.
6.6
Bone remodeling occurs continuously as old bone is removed by osteoclasts and new bone is deposited by osteoblasts. Approximately 5-7% of bone mass is remodeled each week, with spongy bone being replaced about every 3-4 years and compact bone every 10 years. Bone remodeling is regulated by two control loops - hormonal control of blood calcium levels including PTH and calcitonin, and response to mechanical stress based on Wolff's law where bones remodel in response to stresses placed upon them.
6.5
Bone development occurs through two main processes: endochondral ossification and intramembranous ossification. Endochondral ossification forms bones below the skull through replacement of cartilage models with bone tissue in a multi-step process beginning in the second month of development. Intramembranous ossification forms some flat bones of the skull through the direct development of bone within fibrous membranes in mesenchymal tissue. Postnatal bone growth continues through adolescence via growth at the epiphyseal plates of long bones.
6.4
Bones have a complex structure at multiple levels:
- Gross level includes compact bone on the outside and spongy bone on the inside, with membranes like the periosteum covering bones. Long bones have a shaft and ends.
- Microscopic level shows bone is made of osteons containing concentric lamellae, with canals containing blood vessels. Bone cells like osteoblasts and osteoclasts are involved in formation and breakdown.
- Chemical level consists of collagen fibers mineralized with calcium salts to give bone its strength.
6.8
The document discusses three major bone diseases: osteomalacia/rickets caused by vitamin D deficiency which results in soft, weak bones; osteoporosis where bone resorption exceeds formation leading to loss of bone mass and increased fracture risk, particularly in postmenopausal women; and Paget's disease where bone formation and resorption are excessive and disorganized. It also covers age-related changes to bone such as increased formation in childhood balancing resorption in adulthood, and declining bone density with age beginning in the fourth decade of life.
6.3
The document summarizes the classification of bones in the human skeleton. It is divided into two parts:
1) The axial skeleton includes the skull, vertebral column, and rib cage. The appendicular skeleton includes the bones of the upper and lower limbs attached to the axial skeleton by girdles.
2) Bones are also classified by their shape into four categories: long bones are longer than wide and found in the limbs, short bones are cube-shaped in the wrist and ankle, flat bones are thin and curved like those in the skull, and irregular bones have complicated shapes like the vertebrae and hip bones.
6.2
Bones have seven key functions: to provide support for the body and soft organs, protect vital organs like the brain and spinal cord, serve as levers for muscle movement, store minerals and growth factors like calcium and phosphorus, allow for blood cell formation in red bone marrow, store fat for energy, and help regulate hormones through the production of osteocalcin.
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1.3
- 3. 1.3 How Are Living Things Different? • Biodiversity: scope of variation among living organisms • Organisms can be grouped on the basis of whether they have a nucleus (a sac that encloses and protects a cell’s DNA) • Prokaryote: single-celled organism without a nucleus (now used only informally) • Eukaryote: organism whose cells characteristically have a nucleus
- 4. How Are Living Things Different? (cont’d.) • Bacteria: most diverse and well-known group of single-celled organisms that lack a nucleus • Archaea: group of single-celled organisms that lack a nucleus but are more closely related to eukaryotes than to bacteria
- 5. How Are Living Things Different? (cont’d.) A Prokaryotes are single-celled, and have no nucleus. As a group, they are the most diverse organisms.
- 6. How Are Living Things Different? (cont’d.) • Protist: diverse group of simple eukaryotes • Fungus: single-celled or multicelled eukaryotic consumer • Breaks down material outside itself, then absorbs nutrients released from the breakdown
- 7. How Are Living Things Different? (cont’d.) B Eukaryotes consist of cells that have a nucleus. Eukaryotic cells are typically larger and more complex than prokaryotes.
- 8. How Are Living Things Different? (cont’d.) • Plant: multicelled, typically photosynthetic producer • Animal: multicelled consumer that develops through a series of stages and moves about during part or all of its life
- 9. How Are Living Things Different? (cont’d.)
Editor's Notes
- Figure 1.4 A few representatives of life’s diversity: A some prokaryotes; B some eukaryotes. bacteria are the most numerous organisms on Earth. Top, this bacterium has a row of iron crystals that functions like a tiny compass; bottom, a resident of human intestines. archaea resemble bacteria, but they are more closely related to eukaryotes. Top: two types from a hydrothermal vent on the seafloor. Bottom, a type that grows in sulfur hot springs.
- Figure 1.4 A few representatives of life’s diversity: A some prokaryotes; B some eukaryotes. protists are a group of extremely diverse eukaryotes that range from microscopic single cells (top) to giant multicelled seaweeds (bottom). fungi are eukaryotic consumers that secrete substances to break down food outside their body. Most are multicelled (top), but some are single-celled (bottom).
- Figure 1.4 A few representatives of life’s diversity: A some prokaryotes; B some eukaryotes. plants are multicelled eukaryotes. Most are photosynthetic, and have roots, stems, and leaves. animals are multicelled eukaryotes that ingest tissues or juices of other organisms. All actively move about during at least part of their life.