This document discusses key geographical skills and investigation techniques including: - Reading topographical maps such as grid references, directions, and scales - Measuring distances on maps using straight or curved routes - Interpreting landforms and relief using contour lines and describing features like mountains, valleys, and plateaus - Calculating gradients to determine the steepness of slopes - Interpreting map symbols to understand physical and human features - Analyzing settlement patterns and different types of maps - Constructing and interpreting graphs like line graphs, bar graphs, histograms and scatterplots to visualize geographical data - Following the phases of fieldwork which include forming hypotheses or questions, collecting data, analyzing results and drawing conclusions

1. GEOGRAPHICAL SKILLS AND INVESTIGATIONS
In this Chapter you will explore three key topics:
• Topographical map reading skills
• Geographical data and techniques
• Geographical investigations

2. Reading grid references
• Always read the eastings (x-
axis, vertical lines) then the
northings (y-axis, horizontal
lines)
• They can be:
- 4 digit grid references
(xxyy): identify an area OR
- 6 digit grid references
(xxx1yyy1): identify a point
x1 andy1 are derived by sub-
dividing the northings and
eastings into 10 segments
Area: 0736
Point: 088376

3. Reading directions: Compass directions
• They are used to
describe the location
of one geographic
feature from
another.
• When identifying
direction, take note
of the word ‘from’
which signifies the
point you are taking
direction from.
N
E
S
W
NE
SESW
NW
NNE
ENE
ESE
SSESSW
WSW
WNW
NNW

4. Follow these steps when measuring compass bearing:
1.Draw a straight line to join the two objects.
2.Draw the north arrow on the object you are measuring ‘from’.
3.Place the 0° of the protractor on the right side of the north arrow. Read
clockwise to obtain the grid bearing.
4.If the grid bearing is more than 180°, place the 0° of the protractor on the left
side of the north arrow. Add 180° to the bearing measured by the protractor.
Reading directions: Compass bearings

5. Interpreting scales
Type of scale Description
Representative
fraction
• Written as a fraction (1/2,500) or Ratio
(1:2,500)
• No unit of measurement (can be used
for any units of measurement)
Linear scale • A visual representation using a straight
line that is divided into equal parts.
• Used to represent actual distance on
the map (e.g 2 cm represents 1 km)
Statement scale • A scale expressed in words (e.g 1 cm
represents 1 km)

6. Measuring distances
Straight-line distance
1. Connect two points.
2. Use a strip of paper to mark
out the distance between the
points.
3. Place the strip of paper on
the line scale.
4. Alternatively, use a calculator
to convert the map distance
into actual distance (i.e 1cm:
1km therefore 2.5cm=2.5
km)

7. Curved distances
1. Divide the curved distance
into various straight line
segments.
2. Mark each location on the
strip of paper until the whole
length of the curved route is
marked.
3. Place the strip of paper
against the scale to convert
into the actual distance.
4. Alternatively, use string to
trace the curved distance,
and then convert into actual
distance using the scale.
Measuring distances

8. Describing the nature of relief
Compare the two marked areas X and Y. What
differences do you notice in these maps?
X
Y

9. Describing the nature of relief

10. Description of landform Name of
landform
• A highland more than 600 metres above sea level.
• Have steep slopes indicated by closely spaced contour lines.
Mountain
• Steep and near-vertical rock face.
• It is indicated by closely spaced contour lines.
Cliff
• A depression between two highlands.
• represented by v-shaped contour lines pointing towards higher
ground.
• may have a river running through it
(River) Valley
• A low-lying land found near a river.
• Generally flat and can be identified by the lack of contour lines or
widely spaced contours.
Floodplain
• A highland with steep slopes and a flat summit.
• Steep slopes are indicated by closely spaced contour lines
• A flat summit is shown by the absence of contour lines at the
summit.
Plateau

11. Calculating gradient
Gradient indicates the steepness of a slope. It
is measured by dividing the height of the land
with a given horizontal distance. Gradient is
expressed as a fraction or ratio. It is calculated
using the formula:
Difference in height between two points
Horizontal distance between two points
Follow these steps:
1)Difference in height between two points:
maximum height minus minimum height (using
the contour values)
2)Horizontal distance: measure the distance
between the two points and convert into
actual distance
3)Divide results from (1) with (2). NOTE: both
(1) and (2) must be in the same units i.e
metres

12. Interpreting map symbols
Symbols represent the actual
features on the map. They are
found in the key.
They can be used to represent
physical features and human
activities. Some of the
examples are seen on the left.

13. Settlement pattern

14. No. Types of
Map
Uses
1 Base maps Focus on basic information or highlight important information by providing an
outline of the area.
2 Atlas Provide details of natural and human features/occurrences of places.
3 Topographical
maps
Show physical and human features through the use of lines, symbols, colours
and abbreviations.
4 Road maps Road maps show the location of roads, buildings, railway tracks and airports,
and used as navigation tool.
5 Sketch maps Sketch maps are simplified illustrations of an area, drawn to show the basic
positions of an area’s main features.
6 Choropleth
maps
Show the geographical distribution and trends using colours or shadings to
group different data values
7 Isoline maps Isoline maps are maps with isolines, or continuous lines joining points of equal
value
8 Dot maps Dot maps show the distribution of data using dots. The dots have a fixed size or
value and are drawn on a base map.
9 Maps with
proportionate
symbols
Symbols drawn are proportional to the values of the data being mapped. For
example, bigger symbols are accorded to larger values.

15. Simple line graphs Advantages
-Shows trend over time
-Allow for easy
comparison of multiple
sets of data
-May be use to estimate
future patterns
Disadvantages
-Unsuitable if only few
values in data set
-Change may appear
greater if different
scales are used
Air temperature:
independent
variable
Water vapour:
dependent
variable

16. Comparative line graphs
Allows comparison of
two or more sets of
data
Compound line graphs
Allows one set of data
to be sub-divided into
two or more sets of
data

17. Bar graphs
Advantages
-Allow data to be compared
-Patterns can be easily observed
Disadvantages
-Trends are hard to predict
-Only use discrete data (cannot use
0.5)

18. Comparative bar graphs
Allows comparison of
two or more sets of
data
Compound bar graphs
Allows one set of data
to be sub-divided into
two or more sets of
data

19. Describe the trends in the graph
1) General Trend : Increasing / Decreasing / Stable /
Fluctuating
2) Highest reading:
Provide data from figure
3)Lowest reading:
Provide data from figure
4) Anomalie : Sudden
drop/dip/increase/Spike

20. Histogram
1. Histograms show distribution or
frequency of data. The x-axis
shows the range of values.
2. The values do not overlap. The y-
axis shows the frequency.
3. Different from bar graphs
because x-axis states size/classes
and not categories.

21. Pie charts
Advantages
- Easy to interpret
- Show percentage total for each category
Disadvantages
-Value of actual data unknown
-Unable to include too many categories

22. Scattergraphs
1. Plot data using ‘X’s.
2. Draw a straight line of best fit. This will broadly represent
the general pattern formed by the two points.
3. Take note of any anomalies.

23. Statistical calculation

24. The phases in fieldwork

25. Suggesting a hypothesis or guiding
question
Hypothesis Guiding Question
Expressed as a statement Expressed as a question
Consist of a prediction May consist of a problem
Explanation for something that needs to be
tested or proven
Highlights what needs to be known about a
topic
Can have more than two variables
“How long does a Secondary 4 student spend
in the washroom?”
Does not need to have an independent or
dependent variable
“The older the student, the longer the time
they spend in the washroom.”