X-ray crystallography is a technique used to determine the atomic and molecular structure of crystals. X-rays are directed at a crystal and the diffraction pattern produced is analyzed to reveal the crystal structure. This information can be used to construct a 3D electron density map and determine atomic positions. Some important applications of X-ray crystallography include determining the structures of proteins, viruses like HIV, and using this information to develop new drugs.
X-Ray Crystallography is a technique used to determine the atomic and molecular structure of a crystal, in which the crystalline atoms cause a beam of incident X-rays to diffract into many specific directions.
It would be use full to All Needy People. It involve information about NMR Spectroscopy ( a spectroscopic techniques), factors influencing , proton NMR and their applications of NMR as well as Nuclear magnetic imaging.
X-Ray Crystallography is a technique used to determine the atomic and molecular structure of a crystal, in which the crystalline atoms cause a beam of incident X-rays to diffract into many specific directions.
It would be use full to All Needy People. It involve information about NMR Spectroscopy ( a spectroscopic techniques), factors influencing , proton NMR and their applications of NMR as well as Nuclear magnetic imaging.
X-ray crystallography is a technique used for determining the atomic and molecular structure of a crystal, in which the crystalline atoms cause a beam of incident X-rays to diffract into many specific directions.
Separation is brought about through molecular sieving technique, based on the molecular size of the substances. Gel material acts as a "molecular sieve”.
Gel is a colloid in a solid form (99% is water).
It is important that the support media is electrically neutral.
Different types of gels which can be used are; Agar and Agarose gel, Starch, Sephadex, Polyacrylamide gels.
ION EXCHANGE CHROMATOGRAPHY
ByM.Vharshini
B.Sc. Bio Medical Science
Sri Ramachandra University
ION EXCHANGE CHROMATOGRAPHY
Ion-exchange chromatography is a process that allows the separation of ions and polar molecules based on their affinity to the ion exchanger.
It can be used for almost any kind of charged molecule including large proteins, small nucleotides and amino acids.
Cations or Anions can be separated using this method.
PRINCIPLE
It is based on the reversible electrostatic interaction of ions with the separation matrix (i.e.)
The separation occurs by reversible exchange of ions between the ions present in the solution and those present in the ion exchange resin.
CLASSIFICATION OF RESINS
According to the chemical nature they classified as-
1. Strong cation exchange resin
2. Weak cation exchange resin
3. Strong anion exchange resin
4. Weak anion exchange resin
According to the Source they can -
Natural resins : Cation - Zeolytes, Clay
Anion - Dolomite
Synthetic resins: Inorganic & Organic resins
◘Organic resins are polymeric resin matrix.
The resin composed of –
Polystyrene (sites for exchangeable functional groups)
Divinyl benzene(Cross linking agent)-offers stability.
Ion exchange resin should have following requirements
»It must be chemically stable.
»It should be insoluble in common solvents.
» It should have a sufficient degree of cross linking.
»The swollen resin must be denser than water.
»It must contain sufficient no. of ion exchange groups.
Physical properties of ion exchange resins
Cross linking:
It affects swelling & strength & solubility
Swelling:
When resin swells, polymer chain spreads apart
Polar solvents → swelling
Non-polar solvents → contraction
Swelling also affected electrolyte concentration.
Particle size and porosity
Increase in surface area & decrease in particle size will increase the rate of ion exchange.
Regeneration
Cation exchange resin are regenerated by treatment with acid, then washing with water.
Anion exchange resin are regenerated by treatment with NaOH, then washing with water until neutral.
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP OF ION EXCHANGE CHROMATOGRAPHY
Metrohm 850 Ion chromatography system
Instrumentation of ion exchange chromatography
PRACTICAL REQUIREMENTS
1.Column
» glass, stainless steel or polymers
2.Packing the column
» Wet packing method:
A slurry is prepared of the eluent with the stationary phase powder and then carefully poured into the column. Care must be taken to avoid air bubbles.
3.Application of the sample
After packing, sample is added to the top of the stationary phase, use syringe or pipette.
This layer is usually topped with a small layer of sand or with cotton or glass wool to protect the shape of the organic layer from the velocity of newly added eluent.
4.Mobile phase
Acids, alkalis, buffers…
6.Stationary phase
The ionic
A separation technique in which the mobile phase is a gas. Gas chromatography is always carried out in a column.
Separating mixtures of gases or volatile materials based primarily on their physical properties.
X-ray crystallography is a technique used for determining the atomic and molecular structure of a crystal, in which the crystalline atoms cause a beam of incident X-rays to diffract into many specific directions.
Separation is brought about through molecular sieving technique, based on the molecular size of the substances. Gel material acts as a "molecular sieve”.
Gel is a colloid in a solid form (99% is water).
It is important that the support media is electrically neutral.
Different types of gels which can be used are; Agar and Agarose gel, Starch, Sephadex, Polyacrylamide gels.
ION EXCHANGE CHROMATOGRAPHY
ByM.Vharshini
B.Sc. Bio Medical Science
Sri Ramachandra University
ION EXCHANGE CHROMATOGRAPHY
Ion-exchange chromatography is a process that allows the separation of ions and polar molecules based on their affinity to the ion exchanger.
It can be used for almost any kind of charged molecule including large proteins, small nucleotides and amino acids.
Cations or Anions can be separated using this method.
PRINCIPLE
It is based on the reversible electrostatic interaction of ions with the separation matrix (i.e.)
The separation occurs by reversible exchange of ions between the ions present in the solution and those present in the ion exchange resin.
CLASSIFICATION OF RESINS
According to the chemical nature they classified as-
1. Strong cation exchange resin
2. Weak cation exchange resin
3. Strong anion exchange resin
4. Weak anion exchange resin
According to the Source they can -
Natural resins : Cation - Zeolytes, Clay
Anion - Dolomite
Synthetic resins: Inorganic & Organic resins
◘Organic resins are polymeric resin matrix.
The resin composed of –
Polystyrene (sites for exchangeable functional groups)
Divinyl benzene(Cross linking agent)-offers stability.
Ion exchange resin should have following requirements
»It must be chemically stable.
»It should be insoluble in common solvents.
» It should have a sufficient degree of cross linking.
»The swollen resin must be denser than water.
»It must contain sufficient no. of ion exchange groups.
Physical properties of ion exchange resins
Cross linking:
It affects swelling & strength & solubility
Swelling:
When resin swells, polymer chain spreads apart
Polar solvents → swelling
Non-polar solvents → contraction
Swelling also affected electrolyte concentration.
Particle size and porosity
Increase in surface area & decrease in particle size will increase the rate of ion exchange.
Regeneration
Cation exchange resin are regenerated by treatment with acid, then washing with water.
Anion exchange resin are regenerated by treatment with NaOH, then washing with water until neutral.
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP OF ION EXCHANGE CHROMATOGRAPHY
Metrohm 850 Ion chromatography system
Instrumentation of ion exchange chromatography
PRACTICAL REQUIREMENTS
1.Column
» glass, stainless steel or polymers
2.Packing the column
» Wet packing method:
A slurry is prepared of the eluent with the stationary phase powder and then carefully poured into the column. Care must be taken to avoid air bubbles.
3.Application of the sample
After packing, sample is added to the top of the stationary phase, use syringe or pipette.
This layer is usually topped with a small layer of sand or with cotton or glass wool to protect the shape of the organic layer from the velocity of newly added eluent.
4.Mobile phase
Acids, alkalis, buffers…
6.Stationary phase
The ionic
A separation technique in which the mobile phase is a gas. Gas chromatography is always carried out in a column.
Separating mixtures of gases or volatile materials based primarily on their physical properties.
Introduction and principle of glc, hplc
columns of hplc
columns of glc
detectors of glc
detectors of hplc
chromatography
classification of chromatography
gas liquid chromatography
high performance liquid chromatography
HPLC Principle,Instrumentation and ApplicationAlakesh Pradhan
HPLC Chromatography and its principle
Liquid chromatography
High Performance Liquid Chromatography ( HPLC )
The components of the high performance liquid chromatograph (HPLC).
The separation process.
The chromatogram
X-ray crystallography is the experimental science determining the atomic and molecular structure of a crystal, in which the crystalline structure causes a beam of incident X-rays to diffract into many specific directions. By measuring the angles and intensities of these diffracted beams, a crystallographer can produce a three-dimensional picture of the density of electrons within the crystal. From this electron density, the mean positions of the atoms in the crystal can be determined, as well as their chemical bonds, their crystallographic disorder, and various other information.
X-ray crystallography is a powerful technique used in determining the three-dimensional structure of molecules at atomic resolution. It involves the use of X-rays to probe the arrangement of atoms in a crystal lattice. The information obtained from X-ray crystallography can be used to understand the function of biomolecules such as proteins, DNA, and RNA.
X ray crystallography to visualize protein structure.Ritam38
This ppt discusses in detail the process of X ray Crystallography.
Made by the following 3rd year Bs-Ms students of IISER Kolkata:
B Sri Sindhu
Rasiwala Hassan Shabbir
Ritam Samanta
Himanshu Gupta
Sakshi Ajay Shrisath
Aditya Borkar
Diana Denzil Fernandez
Neha Kumari
.Sowmya
Anjali Mohan
Debanjana Mondal
Aanandita Gope
Shruti Santosh Sail
X-ray Crystallography is a scientific method used to determine the arrangement of atoms of a crystalline solid in three dimension. It is based on x ray diffraction. Reveals structure of a crystal at atomic level.
X ray crystallography and X ray DiffractionFaisal Hussain
This is the short description about x ray crystallography.
simplest and easy to understand.
Procedure of X ray Diffraction.
Pros and Cons of X ray Crystallography
X ray crystallography and X ray DiffractionFaisal Hussain
This is the short description about x ray crystallography.
simplest and easy to understand.
Procedure of X ray Diffraction.
Advantages and Disadvantages of X ray Crystallography
X-ray diffraction (XRD) is a versatile non-destructive analytical technique used to analyze physical properties such as phase composition, crystal structure and orientation of powder, solid and liquid samples. Many materials are made up of tiny crystallites. The chemical composition and structural type of these crystals is called their 'phase'. Materials can be single phase or multiphase mixtures and may contain crystalline and non-crystalline components. In an X-ray diffractometer, different crystalline phases give different diffraction patterns. Phase identification can be performed by comparing X-ray diffraction patterns obtained from unknown samples to patterns in reference databases.
principles:
X-Ray Diffraction is the result of constructive interference between X-rays and a crystalline sample. The wavelength of the X-rays used is of the same order of magnitude of the distance between the atoms in a crystalline lattice. This gives rise to a diffraction pattern that can be analysed in a number of ways, the most popular being applying the famous Bragg’s Law (nλ=2d sin θ) which is used in the measurement of crystals and their phases.
Applictions:
Many researchers, in industrial as well as in scientific laboratories, rely on X-ray diffraction (XRD) as a tool to develop new materials or to improve production efficiency. Innovations in X-ray diffraction closely follow the research on new materials, such as in semiconductor technologies or pharmaceutical investigations. Industrial research is directed toward the ever-increasing speed and efficiency of production processes. Fully automated X-ray diffraction analyses in mining and building materials production sites result in more cost-effective solutions for production control.
The main uses of X-ray diffraction are:
Qualitative and quantitative phase analysis of pure substances and mixtures. The most common method for phase analysis is often called 'X-ray powder diffraction' (XRPD).
Cosmetic shop management system project report.pdfKamal Acharya
Buying new cosmetic products is difficult. It can even be scary for those who have sensitive skin and are prone to skin trouble. The information needed to alleviate this problem is on the back of each product, but it's thought to interpret those ingredient lists unless you have a background in chemistry.
Instead of buying and hoping for the best, we can use data science to help us predict which products may be good fits for us. It includes various function programs to do the above mentioned tasks.
Data file handling has been effectively used in the program.
The automated cosmetic shop management system should deal with the automation of general workflow and administration process of the shop. The main processes of the system focus on customer's request where the system is able to search the most appropriate products and deliver it to the customers. It should help the employees to quickly identify the list of cosmetic product that have reached the minimum quantity and also keep a track of expired date for each cosmetic product. It should help the employees to find the rack number in which the product is placed.It is also Faster and more efficient way.
Industrial Training at Shahjalal Fertilizer Company Limited (SFCL)MdTanvirMahtab2
This presentation is about the working procedure of Shahjalal Fertilizer Company Limited (SFCL). A Govt. owned Company of Bangladesh Chemical Industries Corporation under Ministry of Industries.
Sachpazis:Terzaghi Bearing Capacity Estimation in simple terms with Calculati...Dr.Costas Sachpazis
Terzaghi's soil bearing capacity theory, developed by Karl Terzaghi, is a fundamental principle in geotechnical engineering used to determine the bearing capacity of shallow foundations. This theory provides a method to calculate the ultimate bearing capacity of soil, which is the maximum load per unit area that the soil can support without undergoing shear failure. The Calculation HTML Code included.
Water scarcity is the lack of fresh water resources to meet the standard water demand. There are two type of water scarcity. One is physical. The other is economic water scarcity.
Hybrid optimization of pumped hydro system and solar- Engr. Abdul-Azeez.pdffxintegritypublishin
Advancements in technology unveil a myriad of electrical and electronic breakthroughs geared towards efficiently harnessing limited resources to meet human energy demands. The optimization of hybrid solar PV panels and pumped hydro energy supply systems plays a pivotal role in utilizing natural resources effectively. This initiative not only benefits humanity but also fosters environmental sustainability. The study investigated the design optimization of these hybrid systems, focusing on understanding solar radiation patterns, identifying geographical influences on solar radiation, formulating a mathematical model for system optimization, and determining the optimal configuration of PV panels and pumped hydro storage. Through a comparative analysis approach and eight weeks of data collection, the study addressed key research questions related to solar radiation patterns and optimal system design. The findings highlighted regions with heightened solar radiation levels, showcasing substantial potential for power generation and emphasizing the system's efficiency. Optimizing system design significantly boosted power generation, promoted renewable energy utilization, and enhanced energy storage capacity. The study underscored the benefits of optimizing hybrid solar PV panels and pumped hydro energy supply systems for sustainable energy usage. Optimizing the design of solar PV panels and pumped hydro energy supply systems as examined across diverse climatic conditions in a developing country, not only enhances power generation but also improves the integration of renewable energy sources and boosts energy storage capacities, particularly beneficial for less economically prosperous regions. Additionally, the study provides valuable insights for advancing energy research in economically viable areas. Recommendations included conducting site-specific assessments, utilizing advanced modeling tools, implementing regular maintenance protocols, and enhancing communication among system components.
Saudi Arabia stands as a titan in the global energy landscape, renowned for its abundant oil and gas resources. It's the largest exporter of petroleum and holds some of the world's most significant reserves. Let's delve into the top 10 oil and gas projects shaping Saudi Arabia's energy future in 2024.
2. X-ray crystallography is a powerful technique for visualizing the structure of protein.
It is a tool used for identifying the atomic and molecular structure of a crystal.
In crystallography the crystalline atoms cause a beam of incident X-rays to diffract
into many specific directions.
Then crystallographer can produce a three-dimensional picture of the density of
electrons within the crystal.
From this electron density, the mean positions of the atoms in the crystal can be
determined.
X-ray crystallography can locate every atom in a zeolite, an aluminosilicate.
3.
4. The English physicist Sir William Henry Bragg pioneered the determination of
crustal structure by X-ray diffraction methods
X-ray crystallography is a complex field that has been associated with several of
science’s major breakthroughs in the 20th century
Using X-ray crystal data, Dr. James Watson and Dr. Francis Crick were able to
determine the helix structure of DNA in 1953.
In 1998 Dr. Peter Kim, a scientist, was able to determine the structure of a key
protein responsible for the HIV infection process.
5. Ray diffraction by crystals is a reflection of the periodicity of crystal architecture,
so that imperfection in the crystal lattice usually results in poor diffraction
properties.
A crystal can be described with the aid of grid or lattice, defined by three axis and
angles between them.
Along each axis a point will be repeated as distances referred to as the unit cell
constants, labeled a, b and c.
Within the crystalline lattice, infinite sets of regularly spaced planes can be drawn
through lattice points.
These pinlanes can be considered as the source of diffraction and are
designated by a set of three numbers called the Miller indices(hkl).
6. X-ray diffraction
X-ray crystallography uses the uniformity of light diffraction of crytals to
determine the structure of molecule or atom
Then X-ray beam is used to hit the crystallized molecule.
The electron surrounding the molecule diffract as the X-rays hit them.
This forms a pattern. This type of pattern is known as X-ray diffraction pattern
7. Bragg’s Law
nλ = 2d sinƟ
Here d is the spacing between diffracting planes, Ɵ is the incident angle, n is any
integar, and λ is the wavelength of the beam.
These specific directions appear as spots on diffraction pattern called reflections.
Thus X-ray diffraction results from an electromagnetic wave impinging on a
regular array of scatters.
8. Thomson scattering
The X-ray scattering is determined by the density of electrons within the crystal.
Since the energy of an X-ray is much greater than that of a valence electron, the
scattering may be modeled as Thomson scattering, the interaction of an
electromagnetic ray with a free electron
The intensity of Thomson scattering for one particle with mass m and
charge q is:
9. Generally a typical x-ray diffraction contain below parts:
1. Detector
2. X-ray source
3. Crystal on the end of mounting needle
4. Liquid nitrogen steam to keep crystal cold
5. Movable mount to rotate crystal
10. Types of X-ray device used
Elecrons are responsible for the diffraction and intensity in crystallography
Electrons they scatter x-rays weaker than heavy elements.
Knowing this, protein crystallographers use high intensity x-ray sources such as
a rotating anode tube or a strong synchrotron x-ray source for analyzing the
protein crystals.
11. First step
The process begins by crystallizing a protein of interest. 4 critical steps are
taken to achieve protein crystallization:
Purify the protein. Determine the purity of the protein and if not pure (usually
>99%), then must undergo further purification.
Protein must be precipitated by dissolving it in an appropriate solvent(water-
buffer soln. w/ organic salt such as 2-methyl-2,4-pentanediol).
The solution has to be brought to supersaturation by adding a salt to the
concentrated solution of the protein.
Let the actual crystals grow. Since nuclei crystals are formed this will lead to
obtaining actual crystal growth.
12. Second Step
X-rays are generated and directed toward the crystallized protein
Then, the x-rays are shot at the protein crystal resulting in some of the x-rays
going through the crystal and the rest being scattered in various directions.
The crystal is rotated so that the x-rays are able to hit the protein from all
sides and angles.
The pattern on the emulsion due to scattering reveals much information
about the structure of the protein.
The intensities of the spots and their positions are thus are the basic
experimental data of the analysis.
13. Third Step
An electron density map is created based on the measured intensities of the
diffraction pattern on the film
A Fourier Transform can be applied to the intensities on the film to
reconstruct the electron density distribution of the crystal
The mapping gives a three-dimensional representation of the electron
densities observed through the x-ray crystallography
When interpreting the electron density map, resolution needs to be taken into
account
A resolution of 5Å - 10Å can reveal the structure of polypeptide chains, 3Å -
4Å of groups of atoms, and 1Å - 1.5Å of individual atoms.
14. Applications of X-ray Crystallography
HIV-
Scientists also determined the X-ray crystallographic structure of HIV
protease, a viral enzyme critical in HIV’s life cycle, in 1989.
Pharmaceutical scientists hoped that by blocking this enzyme, they could
prevent the virus from spreading in the body.
By feeding the structural information into a computer modeling program,
they could use the model structure as a reference to determine the types of
molecules that might block the enzyme.
Arthritis-
To create an effective painkiller in case of arthritis that doesn’t cause
ulcers, scientists realized they needed to develop new medicines that shut
down COX-2 but not COX-1.
Through structural biology, they could see exactly why Celebrex plugs up
COX-2 but not COX-1
15. Applications of X-ray Crystallography
Applications of X-Ray Crystallography in Dairy Science
X-ray crystallography technique has been a widely used tool for elucidation of
compounds present in milk and other types of information obtained through
structure function relationship.
Stewart has shown that even solutions tend to assume an orderly arrangement
of groups within the solution.
Hence, liquid milk should, and does show some type of arrangement.
The mineral constituent and lactose are the only true crystalline constituents in
dairy products that can be analyzed by X-ray.
Analysis of Milk Stones
X-ray diffraction technique has also been applied for analysing the chemical
composition of milk stones. Since each chemical compound gives a definite
pattern on a photographic film according to atomic arrangement, X-rays can be
used for qualitative chemical analysis as well as structural analysis.
16. Applications of X-ray Crystallography
X-Ray Analysis of Milk Powder
This technique has also been used in study of milk powder. Most work has been
confined to determine the effect of different milk powdering processes upon
structural group spacings within the milk proteins.
Differentiation of Sugar
Since each crystalline compound gives a definite pattern according to the
atomic arrangement, the identification and the differentiation of the common
sugars (sucrose, dextrose and lactose) is made simple by X-rays
In case of new material
X-ray crystallography is still the chief method for characterizing the atomic
structure of new materials and in discerning materials that appear similar by
other experiments.