Levels of organisation of DNA explains how 2 meters long DNA is compacted into chromatin. Useful self-assessment questions are given in the slides. If you want to know the answer, you can ask in comments.
Levels of organisation of DNA explains how 2 meters long DNA is compacted into chromatin. Useful self-assessment questions are given in the slides. If you want to know the answer, you can ask in comments.
This ppt covers:
Central dogma, discoverer of central dogma, Reason why its called central dogma, DNA, RNA, Protein, functions of protein, Types of RNA, DNA replication, Protein synthesis, Transcription, Translation, Exceptions of central dogma, Reverse transcription , prions, genetic code, mutation with types and causes
The flow of information in the cell starts at DNA, which replicates to form more DNA. Information is then ‘transcribed” into RNA, and then it is “translated” into protein.
Information does not flow in the other direction.
A few exceptions to the Central Dogma exist
some RNA viruses, called “retroviruses”.
This ppt covers:
Central dogma, discoverer of central dogma, Reason why its called central dogma, DNA, RNA, Protein, functions of protein, Types of RNA, DNA replication, Protein synthesis, Transcription, Translation, Exceptions of central dogma, Reverse transcription , prions, genetic code, mutation with types and causes
The flow of information in the cell starts at DNA, which replicates to form more DNA. Information is then ‘transcribed” into RNA, and then it is “translated” into protein.
Information does not flow in the other direction.
A few exceptions to the Central Dogma exist
some RNA viruses, called “retroviruses”.
please explain transcription and translationSolutionAnsTran.pdfsiennatimbok52331
please explain transcription and translation
Solution
Ans:
Transcription is the process of making an RNA copy of a gene sequence. This copy, called a
messenger RNA (mRNA) molecule, leaves the cell nucleus and enters the cytoplasm, where it
directs the synthesis of the protein, which it encodes. Translation is the process of translating the
sequence of a messenger RNA (mRNA) molecule to a sequence of amino acids during protein
synthesis. The genetic code describes the relationship between the sequence of base pairs in a
gene and the corresponding amino acid sequence that it encodes. In the cell cytoplasm, the
ribosome reads the sequence of the mRNA in groups of three bases to assemble the protein.
Transcription is the process by which DNA is copied (transcribed) to mRNA, which carries the
information needed for protein synthesis. Transcription takes place in two broad steps. First, pre-
messenger RNA is formed, with the involvement of RNA polymerase enzymes. The process
relies on Watson-Crick base pairing, and the resultant single strand of RNA is the reverse-
complement of the original DNA sequence. The pre-messenger RNA is then \"edited\" to
produce the desired mRNA molecule in a process called RNA splicing.
Formation of pre-messenger RNA
The mechanism of transcription has parallels in that of DNA replication. As with DNA
replication, partial unwinding of the double helix must occur before transcription can take place,
and it is the RNA polymerase enzymes that catalyze this process.
Unlike DNA replication, in which both strands are copied, only one strand is transcribed. The
strand that contains the gene is called the sense strand, while the complementary strand is the
antisense strand. The mRNA produced in transcription is a copy of the sense strand, but it is the
antisense strand that is transcribed.
Ribonucleotide triphosphates (NTPs) align along the antisense DNA strand, with Watson-Crick
base pairing (A pairs with U). RNA polymerase joins the ribonucleotides together to form a pre-
messenger RNA molecule that is complementary to a region of the antisense DNA strand.
Transcription ends when the RNA polymerase enzyme reaches a triplet of bases that is read as a
\"stop\" signal. The DNA molecule re-winds to re-form the double helix.
RNA splicing
The pre-messenger RNA thus formed contains introns which are not required for protein
synthesis. The pre-messenger RNA is chopped up to remove the introns and create messenger
RNA (mRNA) in a process called RNA splicing
Alternative splicing
In alternative splicing, individual exons are either spliced or included, giving rise to several
different possible mRNA products. Each mRNA product codes for a different protein isoform;
these protein isoforms differ in their peptide sequence and therefore their biological activity. It is
estimated that up to 60% of human gene products undergo alternative splicing.
Alternative splicing contributes to protein diversity a single gene transcript (RNA) can have
tho.
Lung Cancer: Artificial Intelligence, Synergetics, Complex System Analysis, S...Oleg Kshivets
RESULTS: Overall life span (LS) was 2252.1±1742.5 days and cumulative 5-year survival (5YS) reached 73.2%, 10 years – 64.8%, 20 years – 42.5%. 513 LCP lived more than 5 years (LS=3124.6±1525.6 days), 148 LCP – more than 10 years (LS=5054.4±1504.1 days).199 LCP died because of LC (LS=562.7±374.5 days). 5YS of LCP after bi/lobectomies was significantly superior in comparison with LCP after pneumonectomies (78.1% vs.63.7%, P=0.00001 by log-rank test). AT significantly improved 5YS (66.3% vs. 34.8%) (P=0.00000 by log-rank test) only for LCP with N1-2. Cox modeling displayed that 5YS of LCP significantly depended on: phase transition (PT) early-invasive LC in terms of synergetics, PT N0—N12, cell ratio factors (ratio between cancer cells- CC and blood cells subpopulations), G1-3, histology, glucose, AT, blood cell circuit, prothrombin index, heparin tolerance, recalcification time (P=0.000-0.038). Neural networks, genetic algorithm selection and bootstrap simulation revealed relationships between 5YS and PT early-invasive LC (rank=1), PT N0—N12 (rank=2), thrombocytes/CC (3), erythrocytes/CC (4), eosinophils/CC (5), healthy cells/CC (6), lymphocytes/CC (7), segmented neutrophils/CC (8), stick neutrophils/CC (9), monocytes/CC (10); leucocytes/CC (11). Correct prediction of 5YS was 100% by neural networks computing (area under ROC curve=1.0; error=0.0).
CONCLUSIONS: 5YS of LCP after radical procedures significantly depended on: 1) PT early-invasive cancer; 2) PT N0--N12; 3) cell ratio factors; 4) blood cell circuit; 5) biochemical factors; 6) hemostasis system; 7) AT; 8) LC characteristics; 9) LC cell dynamics; 10) surgery type: lobectomy/pneumonectomy; 11) anthropometric data. Optimal diagnosis and treatment strategies for LC are: 1) screening and early detection of LC; 2) availability of experienced thoracic surgeons because of complexity of radical procedures; 3) aggressive en block surgery and adequate lymph node dissection for completeness; 4) precise prediction; 5) adjuvant chemoimmunoradiotherapy for LCP with unfavorable prognosis.
Tom Selleck Health: A Comprehensive Look at the Iconic Actor’s Wellness Journeygreendigital
Tom Selleck, an enduring figure in Hollywood. has captivated audiences for decades with his rugged charm, iconic moustache. and memorable roles in television and film. From his breakout role as Thomas Magnum in Magnum P.I. to his current portrayal of Frank Reagan in Blue Bloods. Selleck's career has spanned over 50 years. But beyond his professional achievements. fans have often been curious about Tom Selleck Health. especially as he has aged in the public eye.
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Introduction
Many have been interested in Tom Selleck health. not only because of his enduring presence on screen but also because of the challenges. and lifestyle choices he has faced and made over the years. This article delves into the various aspects of Tom Selleck health. exploring his fitness regimen, diet, mental health. and the challenges he has encountered as he ages. We'll look at how he maintains his well-being. the health issues he has faced, and his approach to ageing .
Early Life and Career
Childhood and Athletic Beginnings
Tom Selleck was born on January 29, 1945, in Detroit, Michigan, and grew up in Sherman Oaks, California. From an early age, he was involved in sports, particularly basketball. which played a significant role in his physical development. His athletic pursuits continued into college. where he attended the University of Southern California (USC) on a basketball scholarship. This early involvement in sports laid a strong foundation for his physical health and disciplined lifestyle.
Transition to Acting
Selleck's transition from an athlete to an actor came with its physical demands. His first significant role in "Magnum P.I." required him to perform various stunts and maintain a fit appearance. This role, which he played from 1980 to 1988. necessitated a rigorous fitness routine to meet the show's demands. setting the stage for his long-term commitment to health and wellness.
Fitness Regimen
Workout Routine
Tom Selleck health and fitness regimen has evolved. adapting to his changing roles and age. During his "Magnum, P.I." days. Selleck's workouts were intense and focused on building and maintaining muscle mass. His routine included weightlifting, cardiovascular exercises. and specific training for the stunts he performed on the show.
Selleck adjusted his fitness routine as he aged to suit his body's needs. Today, his workouts focus on maintaining flexibility, strength, and cardiovascular health. He incorporates low-impact exercises such as swimming, walking, and light weightlifting. This balanced approach helps him stay fit without putting undue strain on his joints and muscles.
Importance of Flexibility and Mobility
In recent years, Selleck has emphasized the importance of flexibility and mobility in his fitness regimen. Understanding the natural decline in muscle mass and joint flexibility with age. he includes stretching and yoga in his routine. These practices help prevent injuries, improve posture, and maintain mobilit
Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility...Sujoy Dasgupta
Dr Sujoy Dasgupta presented the study on "Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility? – The unexplored stories of non-consummation" in the 13th Congress of the Asia Pacific Initiative on Reproduction (ASPIRE 2024) at Manila on 24 May, 2024.
These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a quick overview of physiological basis of a normal electrocardiogram.
Learning objectives:
1. Define an electrocardiogram (ECG) and electrocardiography
2. Describe how dipoles generated by the heart produce the waveforms of the ECG
3. Describe the components of a normal electrocardiogram of a typical bipolar leads (limb II)
4. Differentiate between intervals and segments
5. Enlist some common indications for obtaining an ECG
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 11, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 9, Human Physiology - From Cells to Systems, Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
3. Chapter 29, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
4. Electrocardiogram, StatPearls - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549803/
5. ECG in Medical Practice by ABM Abdullah, 4th edition
6. ECG Basics, http://www.nataliescasebook.com/tag/e-c-g-basics
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Ozempic: Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists Saeid Safari
Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists like Ozempic and Semiglutide
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NYSORA Guideline
2 Case Reports of Gastric Ultrasound
Ozempic: Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists
Translation lgis
1. Dr Zahid Azeem
Assistant Professor
Biochemistry
AJK Medical College, Muzaffarabad
MBBS-2019--- CMB Module
2. RNA for translation
Exists in 3 forms:
mRNA (messenger) made by eukaryotic RNAP II
tRNA (transfer) made by eukaryotic RNAP III
rRNA (ribosomal) made by eukaryotic RNAP I
made (transcribed) in the nucleus, used in the
cytoplasm
Single stranded
6. tRNA
tRNA carries the amino
acid to make the
polypeptide chain
Anticodon:
complementary sequence
on tRNA
Fig. 17.12
Codon
7. tRNA Structure
Hydrogen bond base pairing
between nucleotides of the
same single strand of RNA (80
nucleotides)
Fig. 17.13
Cloverleaf
L-shape
Anticodon loop:
H-bonds with
mRNA codon
3’ end
3’ end
8. tRNA Activation
Enzyme aminoacyl-tRNA
synthetase
attach appropriate amino acid to
tRNA
catalyze covalent joining of
amino acid to tRNA
tRNA + amino acid = aminoacyl-
tRNA (aatRNA)
20 different aatRNA synthetases
for each of the 20 different
amino acids
tRNA molecule is reactivated
many times (recycled)
Fig. 17.14
http://www.bio.davidson.edu/courses/genomics/2005/drysdale/molecular%20function.jpg
9. Ribosome Structure
2 subunits:
large (60S) and small (40S)
Final size is 80S
S (Svedberg): a unit of
measure of size based on
how quickly an object
sediments in a centrifuge
11. Ribosome tRNA binding sites
A site:
aminoacyl-tRNA site
holds the aatRNA carrying the next
amino acid to be added
P site:
peptidyl-tRNA site
holds the tRNA molecule carrying
the growing polypeptide chain
E site:
Exit site
where tRNA molecules leave the
ribosome
13. Initiation step 1: Ribosome finds and
binds to the mRNA strand
Prokaryotes:
mRNA transcript has a Shine-Dalgarno sequence
upstream of initiation AUG codon
16S rRNA on ribosome small 30s subunit has a
complementary sequence: anti Shine-Dalgarno sequence
Eukaryotes
Ribosome small subunit recognizes and bind to mRNA at 5’
cap
14. Initiation step 2: Ribosome locates
translation start site
Ribosome small subunit moves along 5’ leader of
mRNA until reach translation start site (start codon
AUG)
Factors that help ribosome small subunit find start
codon:
Prokaryotes: Initiation factors
Eukaryotes: Kozak sequence on the mRNA
Fig. 17.8
15. Initiation step 3: Initator tRNA binds
Once ribosome
small subunit reach
AUG, initiator
tRNA attaches
AUG
H bonds forms
between the
mRNA codon and
tRNA anticodon
17. Initiation step 4: Ribosome large
subunit binds
= complete ribosome
+ initiator tRNA
+ mRNA at AUG
Forming
complex
requires
energy
Final position of
initiator tRNA is
in P site
18. Elongation Step 1:
Codon recognition
Incoming aa-tRNA to A
site
H bonds form between
the mRNA codon and
tRNA anticodon
Energy is required
19. Elongation Step 2:
Peptide bond formation
Ribosome catalyzes the formation of
a peptide bond
between the amino acid in the P-site to
the amino acid in the A-site
involves the carboxyl end of the
polypeptide chain
Result:
polypeptide chain is longer by one
amino acid
polypeptide chain is transferred to
tRNA at the A site
20. Elongation Step 3: Translocation
Translocation requires
energy
Ribosome moves:
tRNA from P site to E site:
leaves ribosome
tRNA from A site to P site:
polypeptide returns to P site,
ready for next polymerization
A site is now empty
next aatRNA can bind
21.
22. Unidirectional Translocation
mRNA bound to tRNA
Translocates by 1 codon (3
nucleotides)
Ribosome reads mRNA 5’ 3’
mRNA moved through ribosome
unidirectionally
23.
24. Termination
At stop codon a protein called release factor binds to A site
(no tRNA for stop codon, thus no aatRNA)
Release factor:
adds water molecule instead of amino acid to polypeptide
polypeptide hydrolyzed from tRNA in P site and released
Translation complex disassembles
Fig. 17.19
25.
26. Wobble Mechanism
tRNA can recognize more than one codon for
particular amino acid- Wobble hypothesis
First base of tRNA pairs non-stringently
Hence, no need of 61 tRNA for 61 codons
28. Polyribosomes
A single strand of mRNA can be used to make
many copies of a polypeptide simultaneously
Polyribosomes: when 1 molecule of mRNA has
multiple ribosomes simultaneously translating the
mRNA
Fig. 17.20
29. Protein Synthesis in Prokaryotes
Prokaryotes don’t
have a nucleus
How does that
change protein
synthesis?
Fig. 17.22
30. Post-Translational Modifications
Addition: of sugars, lipids, or phosphate groups
Removal (Cleavage): of some amino acids (such
as the methionine) or whole polypeptide chains.
Polymerization: Two or more polypeptides may
join to form a protein. Example: hemoglobin
Folding
