Stratigraphy is the chronological study of sedimentary rocks to understand the history of the Earth. It involves correlating and arranging rock formations based on principles like lithology, order of superposition, and fossil content. The geological time scale divides Earth's history into Eras, Periods, and Epochs as a framework for studying and comparing rock sequences globally. Today we are in the Holocene Epoch of the Quaternary Period within the Cenozoic Era.
CLASSIFICATION OF ORE DEPOSITS
The Mixture of ore minerals are gangue minerals form an Ore deposit. The ore
deposits are generally found enclosed within the country rocks. The ore deposits
are formed in many different ways. Depending upon the process that may
operate to produce them, the ore deposits may be classified as follow:
Magmatic ore deposits.
Sublimation ore deposits.
Pegmatitic ore deposits.
Contact metasomatic ore deposits.
Hydrothermal ore deposits
Cavity filling deposits.
Replacement deposits.
Sedimentation ore deposits.
Evaporation ore deposits.
Residual and mechanical concentration deposits
Metamorphic ore deposits.
MAGMATIC ORE DEPOSITS:
The magmatic ore deposits are the magmatic products which crystallize from
magmas. The magmatic ore deposits are classified as follows:
o Early magmatic deposits
o Late magmatic deposits
Early magmatic deposits:
Early magmatic deposits are formed during the
early stage of the magmatic period. In this case the
ore minerals crystallize earlier than the rock
silicates. The Minerals of Nickel, Chromium, and
Platinum are usually found as early magmatic
deposits. The early magmatic deposits can be sub
divided into two groups:
o Dissemination deposits
o Segregation deposits
Dissemination deposits:
When magma crystallizes
conditions, a granular igneous rock is formed. In
such a rock early formed crystals of
may occur in dissemination.
Segregation deposits:
Magmatic segregation deposits are
formed as a result of gravitative
crystallization differentiation. In
case, the ore mineral which crystallize
early, get ocean-trated on a particular
part of igneous part. The ore deposits
thus formed are known as “Segregation
deposits”.
rly under seated
ore minerals
such
Late Magmatic Deposits:
The ore deposits which are formed to
called late magmatic deposits. The late magmatic deposits contain those ore
minerals which have crystallized at rather low temperature from the residual
magma. The magma which is left after crystallization of early for
is called residual magma. This magma frequently contains many ore minerals. The
late magmatic deposits include most of the magmatic deposits of iron and
titanium ores, these deposits are almost always associated with mafic igneous
rocks.
SUBLIMATION DEPOSITS:
Sublimation is a very minor process of formation of ore deposits. Sublimation
deposits contain only those minerals which have been volatilized by hear and
subsequently redeposit in the same form at low temperature and pressure. The
sublimation deposits are found associated with Volcanoes and Fumaroles. Sulfur
of this origin has been mined in Japan, Italy, and Mexico.
Historical geology Is the branch which deals with the history of the rocks of the earth’s crust with special emphasis on their approximate time of formation and the climate changes they have undergone since their formation.
ELEMENTS OF CORRELATION, STRUCTURAL FEATURES, METHOD OF STRATIGRAPHIC CORRELATION ,
Three principle kinds of correlations
Hi I'm Misson Choudhury , A Post Graduate student, Graduated from Utkal university and Now pursuing my m.sc in applied geology at Bangalore university, Bangalore, i love geological mapping,drawing,hill climbing and tracking..
A presentation on Hydrothermal wall rock alteration with case studies on geophysical applications.
References : https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/16VSZMPMASMNVB47JdBUa_7udBk1qvK2U?usp=sharing
CLASSIFICATION OF ORE DEPOSITS
The Mixture of ore minerals are gangue minerals form an Ore deposit. The ore
deposits are generally found enclosed within the country rocks. The ore deposits
are formed in many different ways. Depending upon the process that may
operate to produce them, the ore deposits may be classified as follow:
Magmatic ore deposits.
Sublimation ore deposits.
Pegmatitic ore deposits.
Contact metasomatic ore deposits.
Hydrothermal ore deposits
Cavity filling deposits.
Replacement deposits.
Sedimentation ore deposits.
Evaporation ore deposits.
Residual and mechanical concentration deposits
Metamorphic ore deposits.
MAGMATIC ORE DEPOSITS:
The magmatic ore deposits are the magmatic products which crystallize from
magmas. The magmatic ore deposits are classified as follows:
o Early magmatic deposits
o Late magmatic deposits
Early magmatic deposits:
Early magmatic deposits are formed during the
early stage of the magmatic period. In this case the
ore minerals crystallize earlier than the rock
silicates. The Minerals of Nickel, Chromium, and
Platinum are usually found as early magmatic
deposits. The early magmatic deposits can be sub
divided into two groups:
o Dissemination deposits
o Segregation deposits
Dissemination deposits:
When magma crystallizes
conditions, a granular igneous rock is formed. In
such a rock early formed crystals of
may occur in dissemination.
Segregation deposits:
Magmatic segregation deposits are
formed as a result of gravitative
crystallization differentiation. In
case, the ore mineral which crystallize
early, get ocean-trated on a particular
part of igneous part. The ore deposits
thus formed are known as “Segregation
deposits”.
rly under seated
ore minerals
such
Late Magmatic Deposits:
The ore deposits which are formed to
called late magmatic deposits. The late magmatic deposits contain those ore
minerals which have crystallized at rather low temperature from the residual
magma. The magma which is left after crystallization of early for
is called residual magma. This magma frequently contains many ore minerals. The
late magmatic deposits include most of the magmatic deposits of iron and
titanium ores, these deposits are almost always associated with mafic igneous
rocks.
SUBLIMATION DEPOSITS:
Sublimation is a very minor process of formation of ore deposits. Sublimation
deposits contain only those minerals which have been volatilized by hear and
subsequently redeposit in the same form at low temperature and pressure. The
sublimation deposits are found associated with Volcanoes and Fumaroles. Sulfur
of this origin has been mined in Japan, Italy, and Mexico.
Historical geology Is the branch which deals with the history of the rocks of the earth’s crust with special emphasis on their approximate time of formation and the climate changes they have undergone since their formation.
ELEMENTS OF CORRELATION, STRUCTURAL FEATURES, METHOD OF STRATIGRAPHIC CORRELATION ,
Three principle kinds of correlations
Hi I'm Misson Choudhury , A Post Graduate student, Graduated from Utkal university and Now pursuing my m.sc in applied geology at Bangalore university, Bangalore, i love geological mapping,drawing,hill climbing and tracking..
A presentation on Hydrothermal wall rock alteration with case studies on geophysical applications.
References : https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/16VSZMPMASMNVB47JdBUa_7udBk1qvK2U?usp=sharing
This slide is about Palaentology, specifically geological time scale. The geologic time scale is the “calendar” for events in Earth history. It subdivides all time into named units of abstract time called—in descending order of duration—eons, eras, periods, epochs, and ages.
Time is closely related with geology. The geological timescale is a method of finding the relation between the events that have taken place in the history of the time. This presentation will give you a general knowledge about the relation of time and geology. Cheers!
Suicide Prevention through Architecture (Building) and City PlanningGAURAV. H .TANDON
Suicide Prevention through Architecture (Building) and City Planning
Accessing The Potentials Of CPTED Principles In Addressing Safety Concerns Of Suicide Prevention In City Planning
Suicide Prevention through Architecture (Building) and City PlanningGAURAV. H .TANDON
Suicide Prevention through Architecture (Building) and City Planning
Accessing The Potentials Of CPTED Principles In Addressing Safety Concerns Of Suicide Prevention In City Planning
Digital Detoxing in Smart Cities.
Digital Detox for Sustainability: Unplugging/Redesigning technologies of Smart Cities for a Sustainable Future
“How a small Village in Maharashtra, India teaching importance of Digital detoxing to Mega Smart cities of India”
Digital Detoxing in Smart Cities
Digital Detox for Sustainability: Unplugging/Redesigning technologies of Smart Cities for a Sustainable Future
“How a small Village in Maharashtra, India teaching importance of Digital detoxing to Mega Smart cities of India”
Immunizing Image Classifiers Against Localized Adversary Attacksgerogepatton
This paper addresses the vulnerability of deep learning models, particularly convolutional neural networks
(CNN)s, to adversarial attacks and presents a proactive training technique designed to counter them. We
introduce a novel volumization algorithm, which transforms 2D images into 3D volumetric representations.
When combined with 3D convolution and deep curriculum learning optimization (CLO), itsignificantly improves
the immunity of models against localized universal attacks by up to 40%. We evaluate our proposed approach
using contemporary CNN architectures and the modified Canadian Institute for Advanced Research (CIFAR-10
and CIFAR-100) and ImageNet Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge (ILSVRC12) datasets, showcasing
accuracy improvements over previous techniques. The results indicate that the combination of the volumetric
input and curriculum learning holds significant promise for mitigating adversarial attacks without necessitating
adversary training.
Welcome to WIPAC Monthly the magazine brought to you by the LinkedIn Group Water Industry Process Automation & Control.
In this month's edition, along with this month's industry news to celebrate the 13 years since the group was created we have articles including
A case study of the used of Advanced Process Control at the Wastewater Treatment works at Lleida in Spain
A look back on an article on smart wastewater networks in order to see how the industry has measured up in the interim around the adoption of Digital Transformation in the Water Industry.
Hierarchical Digital Twin of a Naval Power SystemKerry Sado
A hierarchical digital twin of a Naval DC power system has been developed and experimentally verified. Similar to other state-of-the-art digital twins, this technology creates a digital replica of the physical system executed in real-time or faster, which can modify hardware controls. However, its advantage stems from distributing computational efforts by utilizing a hierarchical structure composed of lower-level digital twin blocks and a higher-level system digital twin. Each digital twin block is associated with a physical subsystem of the hardware and communicates with a singular system digital twin, which creates a system-level response. By extracting information from each level of the hierarchy, power system controls of the hardware were reconfigured autonomously. This hierarchical digital twin development offers several advantages over other digital twins, particularly in the field of naval power systems. The hierarchical structure allows for greater computational efficiency and scalability while the ability to autonomously reconfigure hardware controls offers increased flexibility and responsiveness. The hierarchical decomposition and models utilized were well aligned with the physical twin, as indicated by the maximum deviations between the developed digital twin hierarchy and the hardware.
About
Indigenized remote control interface card suitable for MAFI system CCR equipment. Compatible for IDM8000 CCR. Backplane mounted serial and TCP/Ethernet communication module for CCR remote access. IDM 8000 CCR remote control on serial and TCP protocol.
• Remote control: Parallel or serial interface.
• Compatible with MAFI CCR system.
• Compatible with IDM8000 CCR.
• Compatible with Backplane mount serial communication.
• Compatible with commercial and Defence aviation CCR system.
• Remote control system for accessing CCR and allied system over serial or TCP.
• Indigenized local Support/presence in India.
• Easy in configuration using DIP switches.
Technical Specifications
Indigenized remote control interface card suitable for MAFI system CCR equipment. Compatible for IDM8000 CCR. Backplane mounted serial and TCP/Ethernet communication module for CCR remote access. IDM 8000 CCR remote control on serial and TCP protocol.
Key Features
Indigenized remote control interface card suitable for MAFI system CCR equipment. Compatible for IDM8000 CCR. Backplane mounted serial and TCP/Ethernet communication module for CCR remote access. IDM 8000 CCR remote control on serial and TCP protocol.
• Remote control: Parallel or serial interface
• Compatible with MAFI CCR system
• Copatiable with IDM8000 CCR
• Compatible with Backplane mount serial communication.
• Compatible with commercial and Defence aviation CCR system.
• Remote control system for accessing CCR and allied system over serial or TCP.
• Indigenized local Support/presence in India.
Application
• Remote control: Parallel or serial interface.
• Compatible with MAFI CCR system.
• Compatible with IDM8000 CCR.
• Compatible with Backplane mount serial communication.
• Compatible with commercial and Defence aviation CCR system.
• Remote control system for accessing CCR and allied system over serial or TCP.
• Indigenized local Support/presence in India.
• Easy in configuration using DIP switches.
Final project report on grocery store management system..pdfKamal Acharya
In today’s fast-changing business environment, it’s extremely important to be able to respond to client needs in the most effective and timely manner. If your customers wish to see your business online and have instant access to your products or services.
Online Grocery Store is an e-commerce website, which retails various grocery products. This project allows viewing various products available enables registered users to purchase desired products instantly using Paytm, UPI payment processor (Instant Pay) and also can place order by using Cash on Delivery (Pay Later) option. This project provides an easy access to Administrators and Managers to view orders placed using Pay Later and Instant Pay options.
In order to develop an e-commerce website, a number of Technologies must be studied and understood. These include multi-tiered architecture, server and client-side scripting techniques, implementation technologies, programming language (such as PHP, HTML, CSS, JavaScript) and MySQL relational databases. This is a project with the objective to develop a basic website where a consumer is provided with a shopping cart website and also to know about the technologies used to develop such a website.
This document will discuss each of the underlying technologies to create and implement an e- commerce website.
Saudi Arabia stands as a titan in the global energy landscape, renowned for its abundant oil and gas resources. It's the largest exporter of petroleum and holds some of the world's most significant reserves. Let's delve into the top 10 oil and gas projects shaping Saudi Arabia's energy future in 2024.
Explore the innovative world of trenchless pipe repair with our comprehensive guide, "The Benefits and Techniques of Trenchless Pipe Repair." This document delves into the modern methods of repairing underground pipes without the need for extensive excavation, highlighting the numerous advantages and the latest techniques used in the industry.
Learn about the cost savings, reduced environmental impact, and minimal disruption associated with trenchless technology. Discover detailed explanations of popular techniques such as pipe bursting, cured-in-place pipe (CIPP) lining, and directional drilling. Understand how these methods can be applied to various types of infrastructure, from residential plumbing to large-scale municipal systems.
Ideal for homeowners, contractors, engineers, and anyone interested in modern plumbing solutions, this guide provides valuable insights into why trenchless pipe repair is becoming the preferred choice for pipe rehabilitation. Stay informed about the latest advancements and best practices in the field.
2. Stratigraphy
• Principle of stratigraphy and co-relation,
geological time scale, physiographic divisions of
India – study of formations occurring in
peninsular India.
4. Stratigraphy
• Stratigraphy is the chronological study of
sedimentary rocks. Among the different group of
rocks. Only sedimentary rock are amenable to such
study because of the principle of the order of
superposition.
Stratigraphy
• (Strata= a set of sedimentary beds, graphy=
description) reveals various details of the history of the
earth during the different periods of geological past,
from the beginning till the present.
• Through stratigraphy we can know the past details of
climate, geography, glaciations, orogeny, eperogeny,
evolution and migration of plants and animals.
• Thus as this branch of geology reveals the history of
our planet, it is called as “Historical Geology”.
6. Aims of Stratigraphy
The aim of stratigraphy are
• (i) To study the chronological sequence of
scattered strata of different places
• (ii) To correlate them with that of the
worldwide or established regional chronological
framework.
• (iii) To interpret the geological history of the
earth as a whole from the forgoing data.
• Such a study paves the way for the arrangement
of the sedimentary rock in the chronological
sequence in which they were laid on the surface
of earth.
8. Principle of Stratigraphy
• The aims of stratigraphy are achieved mainly in
three different ways which are named as
principles of stratigraphy. They are lithology, order
of superposition and fossil content. All these three
natural phenomenon becomes effective means
because of the logical fact that the “Present is the
key to the past”.
10. Principle of Stratigraphy
Present is the Key to the Past
This may be briefly explained as follows:
• By careful study it is possible to link a particular
geological period with the lithology, order of
superposition and fossil content concerned. From the
present day observation, we know that the different
types of rocks with distinctive minerals and
composition are formed under different
environment (such as dry, humid, glacial, marine,
fluvial, lacustine and terrestrial).
• This means in the past too, depending on different
environmental conditions that had prevailed during
different geological periods, different types of rocks
have been formed. This fact helps in correlation and
also in revealing the part history of the earth.
12. Principle of Stratigraphy
• Thus the occurrence of feldspar-rich arkose type
sandstone or boulder beds reveal intense cold
climate conditions that had prevailed during
their formation.
• Further, their peculiarities make it easy to
correlate them with the rocks of similar kind in
other places. All of them might have been formed
during the same geological period.
• Of course, since glacial periods had occurred
again and again in the geological past, to make
proper correlation, other aspects, i.e. order of
superposition, fossil content etc. also have to be
taken into consideration.
13. Principle of Stratigraphy
Lithology (litho= rock, logo= study)
• The term lithology is synonymous to petrology. But
the term petrology is widely used, whereas the term
lithology is used in general only in stratigraphy.
• This refers to the study of chemical and mineral
composition of rocks. The fact that “ rocks of a similar
kind with similar chemical and mineral composition
are formed at a given time in different places” is
very important and useful in correlation. Sometimes,
special stress is laid on heavy mineral studies.
• Lithology also reveal some environmental aspects of
the sequence and types of rocks.
15. Principle of Stratigraphy
Order of Superposition
• The chronological importance of the order of
superposition in sedimentary rocks was first
recognized by N.Steno in 1669. According to
this principle, in a set of strata successively
younger beds lie upwards.
• This is natural because when sedimentation takes
place, it commences from the bottom of the basin.
Therefore, the bottommost layer is the first to
be formed and hence the oldest of the set. Over
this layer lies the next formed one and above it lie
still younger beds. Thus successively younger
beds occur upward in an undisturbed sequence
of beds.
17. Principle of Stratigraphy
• Of course, when the beds are overturned, the
order of superposition appear in reverse.
However, by verifying the actual top and
bottom of beds, it is possible to know the
proper order of superposition.
• An important fact of the order of superposition is
that similar sequence of rocks are expected to
develop in different places during the same
geological period, under similar conditions.
• Based on this fact, correlation of different
scattered of rocks can be made.
18. Principle of Stratigraphy
• Fossils may be defined as “ the relicts and
remnants of ancient animals and plants that
have been preserved inside the rocks by
natural process”
• Occurrence of fossils in sedimentary rocks is a
matter of chance because under very favorable
conditions they occur.
• This means all sedimentary rocks do not
possess fossil fuels. But if they are present they
very useful give valuable information.
20. Principle of Stratigraphy
• The fossil and the rocks which possess them
belong to the same age group, i.e. the rocks
had formed in a particular geological period
will be having the restrict of only of animals
and plants which were existing over the time.
• We find today the different plants and
animals flourish different. If we keep in mind
that the
• “present is the key to the past”. With the
help of fossil we can understand the history of
earth.
21. What is the Earth’s time scale?
• The Geological time scale is a record of the
life forms and geological events in Earth’s
history.
• Scientists developed the time scale by studying
rock layers and fossils world wide.
• Radioactive dating helped determine the
absolute divisions in the time scale.
22. Geological Time Scale
• It is believed that the earth came into existence nearly
4500 million years ago. Therefore, its history is
spreading over all this lengthy period.
• For the sake of convenience of study and references
and also for relative comparison of ages of different
sequence of rocks found in different places on the
earth’s surface, it is necessary to have a proper
framework of geological time.
• This need is fulfilled by the “Geological Time Scale”,
which is internationally accepted. It is like the calendar
of an year. As an year is divided into different months,
each month into weeks, each week into days, each day
into hours. and so on the geological time scale is also
similarly subdivided into smaller and smaller unit to
suit the stratigraphical study and correlation.
24. Geological Time Scale
• The geological time scale is subdivided into number
of eras. Each era comprises a number of
“periods”, which, in turn are subdivided into
“epochs”. A number of “ages” make up an epoch.
These sub units of an age are sometimes called
“hemeras” or “Phases”.
• The similarity of the mode of subdivision of a year
and geological time scale is up to this extent only.
25. Geological Time Scale
• The duration or time interval between any two such
successive extraordinary events is described as an era.
Thus, based on this principle, the geological time
scale, which represents the entire period of the earth’s
history, has been subdivided into six eras. They are:
Achaean Era (The Oldest), Precambrian era,
Primary era, Secondary era, Tertiary era and
Quaternary era (The last and the youngest).
26. Geological Time Scale
They are as follows:
Geological Time Scale
1 Achaean Era Azoic Era (Zoe= life, Azoic= lifeless, means an era
without life)
2 Precambrian Era Proterozoic Era (Protero= Very early, meaning an era with
very early life, which is not recorded as
fossils)
3 Primary Era Palaeozoic Era (Palaeo= ancient or old, meaning the era with
first important life which is recorded as
fossils).
4 Secondary Era Mesozoic Era (Mesos= middle, meaning an era with life,
which is not old or not recent.
5 Tertiary Era Cenozoic Era (Ceno or Kaino= recent, meaning an era with
recent life)
6 Quaternary Era Psychozoic Era (Psycho= reasoning pr thinking, meaning an
era with life which has reasoning or thinking
capacity.
32. Divisions of Geologic Time
• Eras are subdivided into periods...periods are
subdivided into epochs.
Era
Period
Epoch
E + P = EP
33. Divisions of Geologic Time
• Geological time begins with Precambrian
Time. Precambrian time covers approximately
88% of Earth’s history.
34.
35. FOUR Eras…
• PRE-CAMBRIAN – 88% of earth’s history
• Paleozoic (ancient life)
– 544 million years ago…lasted 300 million yrs
• Mesozoic (middle life)
– 245 million years ago…lasted 180 million yrs
• Cenozoic (recent life)
– 65 million years ago…continues through present day
36. Today…
• Today we are in the Holocene Epoch of the
Quaternary Period of the Cenozoic Era.
Which unit is the largest?
Which unit is the smallest?
37. Today…
• Today we are in the Holocene Epoch of the
Quaternary Period of the Cenozoic Era.
38.
39. Paleozoic Era (Ancient Life)
• The Cambrian period is the 1st period of the Paleozoic Era.
“Age of the Trilobites”
• Explosion of life in the oceans began during this era.
• Most of the continents were covered in warm, shallow
seas.
– Invertebrates were dominate - Trilobites
– Fish emerged during this time
– Fish led to the arrival of amphibians
• The end of the Paleozoic era is called the “Age of Amphibians”
– Early land plants including mosses, ferns and cone-bearing
plants.
– The early coal forming forests were also formed during this time.
40. Paleozoic Era
• Much of the limestone quarried for building and
industrial purposes, as well as the coal deposits of
western Europe and the eastern United States, were
formed during the Paleozoic.
• The Cambrian (beginning) opened with the breakup
of the world-continent Rodina and closed with the
formation of Pangaea, as the Earth's continents came
together once again.
– This event is thought to have caused the climate
changes that led to mass extinction event.
• The Appalachian mountains were formed during
this time.
41. Paleozoic Era
• At the end of the Paleozoic, the largest mass
extinction in history wiped out approximately 90%
of all marine animal species and 70% of land
animals.
– Possible causes of this Mass Extinction Event
• Lowering of sea levels when the continents were
rejoined as Pangaea (convergent boundary)
• Increased volcanic activity (ash and dust)
• Climate changes – cooler climate
42. Trilobites
• Lived in Earth’s ancient seas
• Extinct before the dinosaurs came
into existence
• Cambrian Period is know as the
“Age of the Trilobites” (put in on
table)
47. Mesozoic Era – Middle Life
• At the beginning of this era the continents
were joined as Pangaea.
• Pangaea broke up around the middle of this
era.
• Reptiles became the most abundant animals
because of their ability to adapt to the drier
climate of the Mesozoic Era.
– Skin maintains body fluids
– Embryos live in shells
48. Mesozoic Era
• Dinosaurs were also very active in this era.
– First small dinosaurs appeared in the Triassic
Period.
– Larger and more abundant dinosaurs appeared in
the Jurassic Period.
• Small mammals and birds also appeared
during this era.
– The mammals were small, warm-blooded
animals. Hair covering their bodies.
• These characteristics help them survive in changing
environments.
49.
50.
51.
52. Mesozoic Era
• The main plant life of this time were
Gymnosperms or plants that produce seeds, but
no flowers.
– Pine Trees
• Flowering plants appeared during the END of this
era.
53. Mesozoic Era
• This era ended with a mass extinction event about
65 million years ago.
– Many groups of animals, including the dinosaurs
disappeared suddenly at this time.
• Many scientists believe that this event was caused
by a comet or asteroid colliding with the Earth.
54.
55.
56.
57.
58. Mesozoic Era – Mass Extinction Event
• Asteroid or Comet collides with Earth.
– Huge cloud of smoke and dust fills the air
– Blocks out sunlight
– Plants die
– Animals that eat plants die
– Animals that eat plant-eaters die.
• However, not all forms of life died during this event.
Many animals that you see today are descendants
from the survivors of this extinction event.
64. Cenozoic Era – Recent Life
• Began about 65 million years ago andcontinues today !!!!!
– Climate was warm and mild.
– Marine animals such as whales and dolphins evolved.
• Mammals began to increase and evolve adaptations that
allowed them to live in many different environments –
land, air and the sea.
– Grasses increased and provided a food source for grazing animals
• Many mountain ranges formed during the Cenozoic Era
– Alps in Europe and Himalayas in India; Rocky Mountains in the
USA
65. Cenozoic Era
• Growth of these mountains may have helped to cool
down the climate
– Ice Ages occurred late in the Cenozoic Era (Quaternary
Period).
• As the climate changed, the animals had to adapt to
the rise and fall of the oceans caused by melting
glaciers.
• This era is sometimes called the “Age of Mammals”
66. Cenozoic Era
• Marine animal examples:
– Algae, Mollusks, Fish and Mammals
• Land animal examples:
– Bats, Cats, Dogs, Cattle and Humans
– Humans are thought to have appeared around 3.5 million
years ago (during the most recent period – Quaternary ).
• Flowering plants were now the most common plant
life.
69. Geological Divisions of India
• The Physiographical map shows clearly that
India is divisible into three parts, each having
distinguish character of its own. These three
parts are
• Extra-pennsula,
• Indo-Gangetic alluvial plains and
• Peninsula.
71. Extra-Peninsula
• The extra –peninsular part is the mountainous
region of the giant Himalayan ranges. The
Indo-Gangetic plains are the vast plain
lands stretching across northern India from
Assam and Bengal in the east, through
Bihar and Uttar Pradesh to Punjab and
Sind in the vest.
74. Peninsula.
• The peninsular part lies to the south of the
Indo-Gangetic plains.
• The clear difference that we notice among
these three parts of our country from the
geological point of view can be appreciated
well in terms of topography (i.e.
Physiography), stratigraphy and structural
division.
75. Geological Divisions of India
Physiographical Divisions
• Based on surface, i.e. physiography, the threefold
divisions of India can be well appreciated as
follows:
• The peninsula is an ancient plateau which has been
exposed for long ages to denudation and
approaching peneplain. Its mountain ranges are of
the relict type, i.e. they represent the survival of
hard mass of rock which have withstood
weathering and erosion. Its rivers move, for the
most part, over a flat country with low and have built
up shallow and broad valleys.
77. Geological Divisions of India
• The extra-peninsula, on the other hand, is a highly
irregular region of folded and over-thrust
mountain chains of geologically recent origin. Its
rivers are youthful and are actively eroding and
over-thrust mountain chains of geologically recent
origin.
• Its rivers are youthful and are actively eroding
their beds along their courses and carving out
deep and steep sided georges.
79. Geological Divisions of India
• The Indo-Gangetic plains are broad,
monotonous, plain expanses. These are built
of recent alluvium through which the river
flow sluggishly towards the seas their
respective destination.