The Stratigraphic Code establishes rules for naming and defining stratigraphic units. There are two versions of the code from the North American and International commissions. Stratigraphic units are categorized based on physical characteristics and time, and include lithostratigraphic, biostratigraphic, magnetostratigraphic, and others. Proper naming of a new unit requires publication and establishing type sections and boundaries.
Boundary problems between :-
Precambrian/Cambrian
Permian/Triassic
Cretaceous/Tertiary
Neogene/Quaternary
Stratigraphic boundaries are determined by one or more of geological events such as volcanic activity, sedimentation, tectonism, paleo-environments & evolution of life.
Faunal records have played major role in determining the boundaries of the Phanerozoic units.
The other geological events are dated on the evidence of fossil records.
Boundary problems between :-
Precambrian/Cambrian
Permian/Triassic
Cretaceous/Tertiary
Neogene/Quaternary
Stratigraphic boundaries are determined by one or more of geological events such as volcanic activity, sedimentation, tectonism, paleo-environments & evolution of life.
Faunal records have played major role in determining the boundaries of the Phanerozoic units.
The other geological events are dated on the evidence of fossil records.
Lithostratigraphic units Geology By Misson Choudhury Misson Choudhury
Misson Choudhury, Budding Geologists ,graduated from utkal university odisha,now pursuing M.sc applied geology in Bangalore university ..love to geologic mapping,drawing ,climbing ,tracking..
A presentation on Hydrothermal wall rock alteration with case studies on geophysical applications.
References : https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/16VSZMPMASMNVB47JdBUa_7udBk1qvK2U?usp=sharing
Sedimentary basins are the depressions in the earth's crust where loose particles accumulate and finally lithified to form sedimentary rocks. Basins are particularly attractive to geoscientists from time immemorial due to the wealth hidden here in the form of oil, gas, coal etc. In this document you will find the types of basins, basin-fill types, methods of basin analysis and so on.
CLASSIFICATION OF ORE DEPOSITS
The Mixture of ore minerals are gangue minerals form an Ore deposit. The ore
deposits are generally found enclosed within the country rocks. The ore deposits
are formed in many different ways. Depending upon the process that may
operate to produce them, the ore deposits may be classified as follow:
Magmatic ore deposits.
Sublimation ore deposits.
Pegmatitic ore deposits.
Contact metasomatic ore deposits.
Hydrothermal ore deposits
Cavity filling deposits.
Replacement deposits.
Sedimentation ore deposits.
Evaporation ore deposits.
Residual and mechanical concentration deposits
Metamorphic ore deposits.
MAGMATIC ORE DEPOSITS:
The magmatic ore deposits are the magmatic products which crystallize from
magmas. The magmatic ore deposits are classified as follows:
o Early magmatic deposits
o Late magmatic deposits
Early magmatic deposits:
Early magmatic deposits are formed during the
early stage of the magmatic period. In this case the
ore minerals crystallize earlier than the rock
silicates. The Minerals of Nickel, Chromium, and
Platinum are usually found as early magmatic
deposits. The early magmatic deposits can be sub
divided into two groups:
o Dissemination deposits
o Segregation deposits
Dissemination deposits:
When magma crystallizes
conditions, a granular igneous rock is formed. In
such a rock early formed crystals of
may occur in dissemination.
Segregation deposits:
Magmatic segregation deposits are
formed as a result of gravitative
crystallization differentiation. In
case, the ore mineral which crystallize
early, get ocean-trated on a particular
part of igneous part. The ore deposits
thus formed are known as “Segregation
deposits”.
rly under seated
ore minerals
such
Late Magmatic Deposits:
The ore deposits which are formed to
called late magmatic deposits. The late magmatic deposits contain those ore
minerals which have crystallized at rather low temperature from the residual
magma. The magma which is left after crystallization of early for
is called residual magma. This magma frequently contains many ore minerals. The
late magmatic deposits include most of the magmatic deposits of iron and
titanium ores, these deposits are almost always associated with mafic igneous
rocks.
SUBLIMATION DEPOSITS:
Sublimation is a very minor process of formation of ore deposits. Sublimation
deposits contain only those minerals which have been volatilized by hear and
subsequently redeposit in the same form at low temperature and pressure. The
sublimation deposits are found associated with Volcanoes and Fumaroles. Sulfur
of this origin has been mined in Japan, Italy, and Mexico.
Introduction
Petrophysic of the rocks
It is the study of the physical and chemical properties of the rocks related to the pores and fluid distribution
Porosity, is ratio between volume of void to the total voids of the rock.
Permeability, is ability of a porous material to allow fluids to pass through it.
Electric, most of the sedimentary rocks don’t have conductivity.
Radiation, clay rocks have 40K, radiate alpha ray.
Hardness, it depends on the cementing material and thickness of the sediments.
WELL LOGGING
The systematic recording of rock properties and it’s fluid contents in wells being drilled or produced to obtain various petrophysical parameters and characteristics of down hole sequences (G.E Archie 1950).
The measurement versus depth or time, or both, of one or more physical properties in a well.
These methods are particularly good when surface outcrops are not available, but a direct sample of the rock is needed to be sure of the lithology.
A wide range of physical parameters can be measured.
In some cases, the measurements are not direct, it require interpretation by analogy or by correlating values between two or more logs run in the same hole.
Provide information on lithology, boundaries of formations and stratigraphic correlation.
Determine Porosity, Permeability, water, oil and gas saturation.
Reservoir modeling and Structural studies… etc.
Types of Well Logging
Logs can be classified into several types under different category
Permeability and lithology Logs
Gamma Ray log
Self Potential [SP] log
Caliber log
Porosity Logs
Density log
Sonic log
Neutron log
Electrical Logs
Resistivity Log
For contact : omerupto3@gmail.com
The spontaneous potential log, commonly called the self potential log or SP log, is a passive measurement taken by oil industry well loggers to characterise rock
Lithostratigraphic units Geology By Misson Choudhury Misson Choudhury
Misson Choudhury, Budding Geologists ,graduated from utkal university odisha,now pursuing M.sc applied geology in Bangalore university ..love to geologic mapping,drawing ,climbing ,tracking..
A presentation on Hydrothermal wall rock alteration with case studies on geophysical applications.
References : https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/16VSZMPMASMNVB47JdBUa_7udBk1qvK2U?usp=sharing
Sedimentary basins are the depressions in the earth's crust where loose particles accumulate and finally lithified to form sedimentary rocks. Basins are particularly attractive to geoscientists from time immemorial due to the wealth hidden here in the form of oil, gas, coal etc. In this document you will find the types of basins, basin-fill types, methods of basin analysis and so on.
CLASSIFICATION OF ORE DEPOSITS
The Mixture of ore minerals are gangue minerals form an Ore deposit. The ore
deposits are generally found enclosed within the country rocks. The ore deposits
are formed in many different ways. Depending upon the process that may
operate to produce them, the ore deposits may be classified as follow:
Magmatic ore deposits.
Sublimation ore deposits.
Pegmatitic ore deposits.
Contact metasomatic ore deposits.
Hydrothermal ore deposits
Cavity filling deposits.
Replacement deposits.
Sedimentation ore deposits.
Evaporation ore deposits.
Residual and mechanical concentration deposits
Metamorphic ore deposits.
MAGMATIC ORE DEPOSITS:
The magmatic ore deposits are the magmatic products which crystallize from
magmas. The magmatic ore deposits are classified as follows:
o Early magmatic deposits
o Late magmatic deposits
Early magmatic deposits:
Early magmatic deposits are formed during the
early stage of the magmatic period. In this case the
ore minerals crystallize earlier than the rock
silicates. The Minerals of Nickel, Chromium, and
Platinum are usually found as early magmatic
deposits. The early magmatic deposits can be sub
divided into two groups:
o Dissemination deposits
o Segregation deposits
Dissemination deposits:
When magma crystallizes
conditions, a granular igneous rock is formed. In
such a rock early formed crystals of
may occur in dissemination.
Segregation deposits:
Magmatic segregation deposits are
formed as a result of gravitative
crystallization differentiation. In
case, the ore mineral which crystallize
early, get ocean-trated on a particular
part of igneous part. The ore deposits
thus formed are known as “Segregation
deposits”.
rly under seated
ore minerals
such
Late Magmatic Deposits:
The ore deposits which are formed to
called late magmatic deposits. The late magmatic deposits contain those ore
minerals which have crystallized at rather low temperature from the residual
magma. The magma which is left after crystallization of early for
is called residual magma. This magma frequently contains many ore minerals. The
late magmatic deposits include most of the magmatic deposits of iron and
titanium ores, these deposits are almost always associated with mafic igneous
rocks.
SUBLIMATION DEPOSITS:
Sublimation is a very minor process of formation of ore deposits. Sublimation
deposits contain only those minerals which have been volatilized by hear and
subsequently redeposit in the same form at low temperature and pressure. The
sublimation deposits are found associated with Volcanoes and Fumaroles. Sulfur
of this origin has been mined in Japan, Italy, and Mexico.
Introduction
Petrophysic of the rocks
It is the study of the physical and chemical properties of the rocks related to the pores and fluid distribution
Porosity, is ratio between volume of void to the total voids of the rock.
Permeability, is ability of a porous material to allow fluids to pass through it.
Electric, most of the sedimentary rocks don’t have conductivity.
Radiation, clay rocks have 40K, radiate alpha ray.
Hardness, it depends on the cementing material and thickness of the sediments.
WELL LOGGING
The systematic recording of rock properties and it’s fluid contents in wells being drilled or produced to obtain various petrophysical parameters and characteristics of down hole sequences (G.E Archie 1950).
The measurement versus depth or time, or both, of one or more physical properties in a well.
These methods are particularly good when surface outcrops are not available, but a direct sample of the rock is needed to be sure of the lithology.
A wide range of physical parameters can be measured.
In some cases, the measurements are not direct, it require interpretation by analogy or by correlating values between two or more logs run in the same hole.
Provide information on lithology, boundaries of formations and stratigraphic correlation.
Determine Porosity, Permeability, water, oil and gas saturation.
Reservoir modeling and Structural studies… etc.
Types of Well Logging
Logs can be classified into several types under different category
Permeability and lithology Logs
Gamma Ray log
Self Potential [SP] log
Caliber log
Porosity Logs
Density log
Sonic log
Neutron log
Electrical Logs
Resistivity Log
For contact : omerupto3@gmail.com
The spontaneous potential log, commonly called the self potential log or SP log, is a passive measurement taken by oil industry well loggers to characterise rock
fossil record - why it is incomplete - index fossils - principle of superposition - principle of fossil succession - lithostratigraphic units - biostratigraphic units - time stratigraphic units - facies fossils - correlation - biozones
Introduction
Stratigraphy is the study of strata (sedimentary layers) in the Earth's crust, it is the relationship between rocks and time.
Stratigrapher are concerned with the observation, description and interpretation of direct and tangible evidence in rocks to determine the history of the Earth.
The combination of sedimentology and stratigraphy allows us to build up pictures of the Earth’s surface at different times in different places and relate them to each other through the relative ages of rocks
A more modern way of stating the same principle is that the laws of nature (laws of chemistry and physics) that have operated in the same way since the beginning of time.
And thus if we understand the physical and chemical principles by which nature operates, we can assume that nature operated the same way in the past.
Basic principles of stratigraphy
Principle of Uniformitarianism
Principle of Lateral Horizontality
Principle of Superposition
Principle of Cross-cutting Relations
Principle of Inclusions
Principle of Chilled Margins
Correlation
Historical geology Is the branch which deals with the history of the rocks of the earth’s crust with special emphasis on their approximate time of formation and the climate changes they have undergone since their formation.
ELEMENTS OF CORRELATION, STRUCTURAL FEATURES, METHOD OF STRATIGRAPHIC CORRELATION ,
Three principle kinds of correlations
Ichnology,classification & significance of trace fossilUjjavalPatel16
Ichnology,classification& significance of trace fossil
Most trace fossils are largely facies dependant.
No secondary displacement or transport.
Trace fossils are common in rocks that otherwise are unfossiliferous. (siliciclastics, shorelines)
Non-preservation of the causative organism.
Multiple architects may produce a single structure.
The same individual can produce different structures corresponding to different behavior.
The same individual may produce different structures corresponding with identical behavior but in different substrates.
Identical structures may be produced by the activity of systematically different organisms where behavior is similar.
Abundance - one animal, especially if mobile, can make many traces during its lifetime, whereas it may or may not have its body preserved in the fossil record.
Resource/reserve estimation depends first and foremost on a geological model that provides a sound, confident expectation that a well defined volume (deposit/domain) is mineralized throughout. Without this explicit decision regarding geological continuity of a delimited mineralized zone, neither estimates nor classification of mineral inventory is possible.
CONTINUITY; Geological Continuity; Value (Grade) Continuity; Primary factors that affect the estimation of value continuity; Continuity Domains; Reserves and Resources
The Law of Stratigraphy in archaeology refers to a set of fundamental principles that govern the deposition of geological and archaeological layers over time. These laws serve as the cornerstone for establishing relative chronologies within archaeological sites, allowing archaeologists to determine the relative ages of different layers or strata.
One of the most well-known laws is the Law of Superposition, which states that in an undisturbed sequence of sedimentary rock layers, the oldest layers are at the bottom and the youngest layers are at the top. This principle forms the basis for understanding the temporal sequence of events within a site.
Another important principle is the Law of Original Horizontality, which asserts that sedimentary layers are originally deposited in horizontal or nearly horizontal layers. This law aids archaeologists in interpreting the original orientation of geological strata and helps identify any subsequent tilting or folding that may have occurred.
The Law of Lateral Continuity states that layers of sediment extend laterally in all directions until they thin out or encounter a barrier. This principle is crucial for correlating strata across different areas of a site.
The Law of Cross-Cutting Relationships helps determine the relative ages of geological features by examining their relationships with one another. Features such as faults, intrusions, or erosional surfaces that cut across existing layers are younger than the layers they intersect.
The Law of Faunal Succession and the Law of Biotic Succession rely on the principle that fossil organisms and biological communities succeed one another in a determinable order. By analyzing the fossil record and the succession of plant and animal species, archaeologists can infer relative ages of strata.
Overall, the Law of Stratigraphy provides archaeologists with essential tools for interpreting the temporal sequences of archaeological sites and constructing relative chronologies. These principles are fundamental to the practice of archaeology and are utilized in conjunction with other dating methods to reconstruct past human activities and environmental changes.
LGC field course in the Book Cliffs, UT: Presentation 14 of 14 (Thompson Cany...William W. Little
Preview presentation on the Desert Member of the Blackhawk Formation and the Castigate Sandstone in Thompson Canyon for a professional field course titled: THE BOOK CLIFFS: A CASE STUDY IN COASTAL SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY, offered annually through W.W. LITTLE GEOLOGICAL CONSULTING (also offered by SCA). See details at: HTTP://LITTLEWW.WORDPRESS.COM.
LGC field course in the Book Cliffs, UT: Presentation 13 of 14 (Blue Castle B...William W. Little
Preview presentation on the Kenilworth through Desert Members of the Blackhawk Formation and the Castlegate Sandstone from the Blue Castle Butte area to Gunnison Butte for a professional field course titled: THE BOOK CLIFFS: A CASE STUDY IN COASTAL SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY, offered annually through W.W. LITTLE GEOLOGICAL CONSULTING (also offered by SCA). See details at: HTTP://LITTLEWW.WORDPRESS.COM.
LGC field course in the Book Cliffs, UT: Presentation 11 of 14 (Woodside Cany...William W. Little
Preview presentation on the Sunnyside Member of the Blackhawk Formation in Woodside Canyon for a professional field course titled: THE BOOK CLIFFS: A CASE STUDY IN COASTAL SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY, offered annually through W.W. LITTLE GEOLOGICAL CONSULTING (also offered by SCA). See details at: HTTP://LITTLEWW.WORDPRESS.COM.
LGC field course in the Book Cliffs, UT: Presentation 10 of 14 (Woodside Cany...William W. Little
Preview presentation on the Kenilworth Member of the Blackhawk Formation in Woodside Canyon for a professional field course titled: THE BOOK CLIFFS: A CASE STUDY IN COASTAL SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY, offered annually through W.W. LITTLE GEOLOGICAL CONSULTING (also offered by SCA). See details at: HTTP://LITTLEWW.WORDPRESS.COM.
LGC field course in the Book Cliffs, UT: Presentation 9 of 14 (Coal Creek & S...William W. Little
Preview presentation on the Aberdeen Member of the Blackhawk Formation in Coal Creek and Soldier Canyons for a professional field course titled: THE BOOK CLIFFS: A CASE STUDY IN COASTAL SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY, offered annually through W.W. LITTLE GEOLOGICAL CONSULTING (also offered by SCA). See details at: HTTP://LITTLEWW.WORDPRESS.COM.
LGC field course in the Book Cliffs, UT: Presentation 7 of 14 (Spring Canyon ...William W. Little
Preview presentation on the Spring Canyon Member of the Blackhawk Formation in Spring Canyon and Sowbelly Gulch for a professional field course titled: THE BOOK CLIFFS: A CASE STUDY IN COASTAL SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY, offered annually through W.W. LITTLE GEOLOGICAL CONSULTING (also offered by SCA). See details at: HTTP://LITTLEWW.WORDPRESS.COM.
LGC field course in the Book Cliffs, UT: Presentation 5 of 14 (Gentile Wash -...William W. Little
Preview presentation on the Storrs Member of the Star Point Sandstone in Spring Canyon and the Spring Canyon Member of the Blackhawk Formation for a professional field course titled: THE BOOK CLIFFS: A CASE STUDY IN COASTAL SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY, offered annually through W.W. LITTLE GEOLOGICAL CONSULTING (also offered by SCA). See details at: HTTP://LITTLEWW.WORDPRESS.COM.
LGC field course in the Book Cliffs, UT: Presentation 4 of 14 (Spring Canyon ...William W. Little
Preview presentation on the Panther Tongue of the Star Point Sandstone in Spring Canyon for a professional field course titled: THE BOOK CLIFFS: A CASE STUDY IN COASTAL SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY, offered annually through W.W. LITTLE GEOLOGICAL CONSULTING (also offered by SCA). See details at: HTTP://LITTLEWW.WORDPRESS.COM.
LGC field course in the Book Cliffs, UT: Presentation 3 of 14 (Gentile Wash -...William W. Little
Preview presentation on the Panther Tongue of the Star Point Sandstone in Gentile Wash for a professional field course titled: THE BOOK CLIFFS: A CASE STUDY IN COASTAL SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY, offered annually through W.W. LITTLE GEOLOGICAL CONSULTING (also offered by SCA). See details at: HTTP://LITTLEWW.WORDPRESS.COM.
LGC field course in the Book Cliffs, UT: Presentation 2 of 14 (Stratigraphic ...William W. Little
Stratigraphic overview for a professional field course titled: THE BOOK CLIFFS: A CASE STUDY IN COASTAL SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY, offered annually through W.W. LITTLE GEOLOGICAL CONSULTING (also offered by SCA). See details at: HTTP://LITTLEWW.WORDPRESS.COM.
LGC field course in the Book Cliffs, UT: Presentation 1 of 14 (Principles of ...William W. Little
Introductory presentation for a professional field course titled: THE BOOK CLIFFS: A CASE STUDY IN COASTAL SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY, offered annually through W.W. LITTLE GEOLOGICAL CONSULTING (also offered by SCA). See details at: HTTP://LITTLEWW.WORDPRESS.COM.
A brief information about the SCOP protein database used in bioinformatics.
The Structural Classification of Proteins (SCOP) database is a comprehensive and authoritative resource for the structural and evolutionary relationships of proteins. It provides a detailed and curated classification of protein structures, grouping them into families, superfamilies, and folds based on their structural and sequence similarities.
This pdf is about the Schizophrenia.
For more details visit on YouTube; @SELF-EXPLANATORY;
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCAiarMZDNhe1A3Rnpr_WkzA/videos
Thanks...!
Seminar of U.V. Spectroscopy by SAMIR PANDASAMIR PANDA
Spectroscopy is a branch of science dealing the study of interaction of electromagnetic radiation with matter.
Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy refers to absorption spectroscopy or reflect spectroscopy in the UV-VIS spectral region.
Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy is an analytical method that can measure the amount of light received by the analyte.
THE IMPORTANCE OF MARTIAN ATMOSPHERE SAMPLE RETURN.Sérgio Sacani
The return of a sample of near-surface atmosphere from Mars would facilitate answers to several first-order science questions surrounding the formation and evolution of the planet. One of the important aspects of terrestrial planet formation in general is the role that primary atmospheres played in influencing the chemistry and structure of the planets and their antecedents. Studies of the martian atmosphere can be used to investigate the role of a primary atmosphere in its history. Atmosphere samples would also inform our understanding of the near-surface chemistry of the planet, and ultimately the prospects for life. High-precision isotopic analyses of constituent gases are needed to address these questions, requiring that the analyses are made on returned samples rather than in situ.
Introduction:
RNA interference (RNAi) or Post-Transcriptional Gene Silencing (PTGS) is an important biological process for modulating eukaryotic gene expression.
It is highly conserved process of posttranscriptional gene silencing by which double stranded RNA (dsRNA) causes sequence-specific degradation of mRNA sequences.
dsRNA-induced gene silencing (RNAi) is reported in a wide range of eukaryotes ranging from worms, insects, mammals and plants.
This process mediates resistance to both endogenous parasitic and exogenous pathogenic nucleic acids, and regulates the expression of protein-coding genes.
What are small ncRNAs?
micro RNA (miRNA)
short interfering RNA (siRNA)
Properties of small non-coding RNA:
Involved in silencing mRNA transcripts.
Called “small” because they are usually only about 21-24 nucleotides long.
Synthesized by first cutting up longer precursor sequences (like the 61nt one that Lee discovered).
Silence an mRNA by base pairing with some sequence on the mRNA.
Discovery of siRNA?
The first small RNA:
In 1993 Rosalind Lee (Victor Ambros lab) was studying a non- coding gene in C. elegans, lin-4, that was involved in silencing of another gene, lin-14, at the appropriate time in the
development of the worm C. elegans.
Two small transcripts of lin-4 (22nt and 61nt) were found to be complementary to a sequence in the 3' UTR of lin-14.
Because lin-4 encoded no protein, she deduced that it must be these transcripts that are causing the silencing by RNA-RNA interactions.
Types of RNAi ( non coding RNA)
MiRNA
Length (23-25 nt)
Trans acting
Binds with target MRNA in mismatch
Translation inhibition
Si RNA
Length 21 nt.
Cis acting
Bind with target Mrna in perfect complementary sequence
Piwi-RNA
Length ; 25 to 36 nt.
Expressed in Germ Cells
Regulates trnasposomes activity
MECHANISM OF RNAI:
First the double-stranded RNA teams up with a protein complex named Dicer, which cuts the long RNA into short pieces.
Then another protein complex called RISC (RNA-induced silencing complex) discards one of the two RNA strands.
The RISC-docked, single-stranded RNA then pairs with the homologous mRNA and destroys it.
THE RISC COMPLEX:
RISC is large(>500kD) RNA multi- protein Binding complex which triggers MRNA degradation in response to MRNA
Unwinding of double stranded Si RNA by ATP independent Helicase
Active component of RISC is Ago proteins( ENDONUCLEASE) which cleave target MRNA.
DICER: endonuclease (RNase Family III)
Argonaute: Central Component of the RNA-Induced Silencing Complex (RISC)
One strand of the dsRNA produced by Dicer is retained in the RISC complex in association with Argonaute
ARGONAUTE PROTEIN :
1.PAZ(PIWI/Argonaute/ Zwille)- Recognition of target MRNA
2.PIWI (p-element induced wimpy Testis)- breaks Phosphodiester bond of mRNA.)RNAse H activity.
MiRNA:
The Double-stranded RNAs are naturally produced in eukaryotic cells during development, and they have a key role in regulating gene expression .
Cancer cell metabolism: special Reference to Lactate PathwayAADYARAJPANDEY1
Normal Cell Metabolism:
Cellular respiration describes the series of steps that cells use to break down sugar and other chemicals to get the energy we need to function.
Energy is stored in the bonds of glucose and when glucose is broken down, much of that energy is released.
Cell utilize energy in the form of ATP.
The first step of respiration is called glycolysis. In a series of steps, glycolysis breaks glucose into two smaller molecules - a chemical called pyruvate. A small amount of ATP is formed during this process.
Most healthy cells continue the breakdown in a second process, called the Kreb's cycle. The Kreb's cycle allows cells to “burn” the pyruvates made in glycolysis to get more ATP.
The last step in the breakdown of glucose is called oxidative phosphorylation (Ox-Phos).
It takes place in specialized cell structures called mitochondria. This process produces a large amount of ATP. Importantly, cells need oxygen to complete oxidative phosphorylation.
If a cell completes only glycolysis, only 2 molecules of ATP are made per glucose. However, if the cell completes the entire respiration process (glycolysis - Kreb's - oxidative phosphorylation), about 36 molecules of ATP are created, giving it much more energy to use.
IN CANCER CELL:
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
introduction to WARBERG PHENOMENA:
WARBURG EFFECT Usually, cancer cells are highly glycolytic (glucose addiction) and take up more glucose than do normal cells from outside.
Otto Heinrich Warburg (; 8 October 1883 – 1 August 1970) In 1931 was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology for his "discovery of the nature and mode of action of the respiratory enzyme.
WARNBURG EFFECT : cancer cells under aerobic (well-oxygenated) conditions to metabolize glucose to lactate (aerobic glycolysis) is known as the Warburg effect. Warburg made the observation that tumor slices consume glucose and secrete lactate at a higher rate than normal tissues.
Professional air quality monitoring systems provide immediate, on-site data for analysis, compliance, and decision-making.
Monitor common gases, weather parameters, particulates.
Multi-source connectivity as the driver of solar wind variability in the heli...Sérgio Sacani
The ambient solar wind that flls the heliosphere originates from multiple
sources in the solar corona and is highly structured. It is often described
as high-speed, relatively homogeneous, plasma streams from coronal
holes and slow-speed, highly variable, streams whose source regions are
under debate. A key goal of ESA/NASA’s Solar Orbiter mission is to identify
solar wind sources and understand what drives the complexity seen in the
heliosphere. By combining magnetic feld modelling and spectroscopic
techniques with high-resolution observations and measurements, we show
that the solar wind variability detected in situ by Solar Orbiter in March
2022 is driven by spatio-temporal changes in the magnetic connectivity to
multiple sources in the solar atmosphere. The magnetic feld footpoints
connected to the spacecraft moved from the boundaries of a coronal hole
to one active region (12961) and then across to another region (12957). This
is refected in the in situ measurements, which show the transition from fast
to highly Alfvénic then to slow solar wind that is disrupted by the arrival of
a coronal mass ejection. Our results describe solar wind variability at 0.5 au
but are applicable to near-Earth observatories.
Richard's aventures in two entangled wonderlandsRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
insect taxonomy importance systematics and classification
Stratigraphic Code
1. The Stratigraphic Code is the law when it comes to naming and
defining stratigraphic units. There are two similar, but not identical,
forms of the code as authored by the North American and
International commissions on stratigraphic nomenclature, respectively.
The Stratigraphic Code
The purpose of a code is to facilitate
communication by adhering as a
science to a prescribed set of
accepted and understood rules.
2. There are twelve categories of official stratigraphic units based on a
variety of physical (material) characteristics and/or time. The
boundaries of one type of unit do not necessarily coincide with those
of another type. Boundaries of any type of unit must be chosen so as
strata above and below can be distinguished by others.
Official Code Categories
3.
4. Naming or modification of a stratigraphic unit requires:
• Publication in a recognized scientific medium
• Indication of intent
• Indication of category and rank
• Specification of name (two parts)
• Specification of stratotype (where applicable)
• Definition of boundaries
• Discussion of nomenclatural background
• Description
• Age
• Correlations
• Genesis (where applicable)
Naming Procedure
Naming of a new stratigraphic unit should serve a clear purpose and is
only valid if accepted by the scientific community.
5. Unit names are binomial and include both a defining characteristic
(lithology, species, etc.) and a geographic locality (type area) or rank as
part of that name. Each formal unit should include a type (measured)
section.
Stratotypes
A stratotype should
include recognizable
upper and lower (usually
depositional) contacts,
should be highly
representative of the
unit’s diagnostic
characteric, and should
be complete (no fault or
unconformity).
•Type section
•Lectosection
•Reference section
•Principle reference section
6. Lithostratigraphic units are bodies of rock named on the basis of physical
content and stratigraphic position. These units conform to the Law of
Superposition. Time, biological sequence, and depositional environment
do not play part in the definition. Formal units are preferably thick
enough to be mappable at a 1:24K scale.
Lithostratigraphic Units
Contacts between lithostratigraphic
units can be sharp, gradational or
interbedded and are both vertical
and lateral in nature.
A lithostratigraphic unit can be
defined on the basis of a single
lithology or by a characterisitic
heterogenity.
Common lithologic characteristics
include composition, texture, fabric,
structures, and color.
7. Lithostratigraphic units continue laterally until there is a significant
enough change in lithology that the original definition no longer
applies. Thickness can be highly variable.
Lateral Continuity
11. Lithodemic units are non-stratoform bodies of rock named on the
basis of physical content and cross-cutting relationships. Time does
not play a play a part in the definition of these units.
Lithodemic Units
12. Lithodemic unit names are binomial and include both a lithology and
a geographic locality (type area) as part of that name. As they are not
stratiform, there is no accompanying measured section.
Type Area
A type are description
should include a
discussion of contacts
with surrounding unit
and should be highly
representative of the
unit’s lithological
character.
13. Magnetostratigraphic Units
Magnetostratigraphic units are bodies of rock named on the basis of magnetic
properties (polarity reversals, dipole position, secular variation, intensity) and
stratigraphic position. Time does not play a play a part in the definition of
these units.
16. Biostratigraphic units are bodies of rock defined on the basis of fossil
content. Neither time nor lithology play a role in unit definition.
Biostratigraphic Units
Units can be named for the
first and/or last occurrence of a
species or multiple species, for
the range of one or more
species, for the overlap of
multiple species, or for the
relative abundance of one or
more species.
17. Biostratigraphy is a useful tool for relative dating because organisms
have changed through time. Each species has a definite range (origin
to extinction) and each division of earth’s history is characterized by
a recognizable assemblage of organisms.
Evolution
19. Range biozones are based on the first and last occurrences of one
(taxon) or two (concurrent) taxa.
Range Biozones
20. Taxon Range Zones
The boundaries of a taxon range zones are based upon the first and
last occurrence of a single species.
21. Concurrent Range Zones
The boundaries of a concurrent range zones are based upon the first
and/or last occurrences of two species, one for each boundary and
may require other species that extend beyond both boundaries.
Defining species must be present within the zone.
22. Interval biozones are based on the first or last occurrences of two
separate taxa. The defining taxa do not need to be present within the
zone.
Interval Biozones
23.
24. Lineage biozones are based on the first and last occurrences in a
succession of related taxa.
Lineage Biozones
25. Assemblage zones are based on the common occurrence of three or
more taxa.
Assemblage Biozones
26.
27. Abundance zones are based on the relative abundance of one or more
taxa.
Abundance Biozones
32. Pedostratigraphic Units
Pedostratigraphic units are bodies of rock defined on the basis of soil
development and stratigraphic position. Definition can include only
a part of a recognized soil profile. Time does not play a role in unit
definition.
37. “Time Stratigraphy”
“Time stratigraphy” divides earth history into recognizable intervals and
includes both material (rock) and non-material (pure time) units.
Isochronous:
of equal duration
(have synchronous
boundaries)
Synchronous:
sychronous (at the
same time or over
the same period of
time)
Diachronous:
time transgressive
(non-synchronous)
40. Polarity Chronostratigraphic Units
Polarity chronostratigraphic units are isochronous bodies of rock
preserving the magnetic record for a specified interval of time.
Boundaries are synchronous.
44. Polarity Chronologic Units
Polarity chronologic units are conceptual (have no rock stratotypes) and
are based on magnetic field properties for a specified interval of time.
Boundaries are synchronous.
46. Diachronic Units
Diachronic units are conceptual units representing unequal spans of
time as represented by one or more other stratigraphic units, such as
lithostratigraphic, biostratigraphic, allostratigraphic, etc.