DNA is tightly packed in the nucleus of every cell. DNA wraps around special proteins called histones, which form loops of DNA called nucleosomes. These nucleosomes coil and stack together to form fibers called chromatin. Chromatin in turn forms larger loops and coils to form chromosomes.
DNA packaging is crucial because it makes sure that those excessive DNA are able to fit nicely in a cell that is many times smaller.
The DNA in bacterial cells are either circular or linear. To accommodate the size of bacterial cell, supercoiled DNA are folded into loops with each loop resembles shape of bead-like packets containing small basic proteins that is analogous to histone found in Eukaryotes.
Chromatin is the complex combination of DNA and proteins that makes up chromosomes. It can be made visible by staining with specific techniques and stain (thus the name chromatin which literally means colored material). The major proteins involved in chromatin are histone proteins; although many other chromosomal proteins have prominent roles too. The functions of chromatin is to package DNA into smaller volume to fit in the cell, to strengthen the DNA to allow mitosis and meiosis and to serve as a mechanism to control gene expression and DNA replication.
DNA is tightly packed in the nucleus of every cell. DNA wraps around special proteins called histones, which form loops of DNA called nucleosomes. These nucleosomes coil and stack together to form fibers called chromatin. Chromatin in turn forms larger loops and coils to form chromosomes.
DNA packaging is crucial because it makes sure that those excessive DNA are able to fit nicely in a cell that is many times smaller.
The DNA in bacterial cells are either circular or linear. To accommodate the size of bacterial cell, supercoiled DNA are folded into loops with each loop resembles shape of bead-like packets containing small basic proteins that is analogous to histone found in Eukaryotes.
Chromatin is the complex combination of DNA and proteins that makes up chromosomes. It can be made visible by staining with specific techniques and stain (thus the name chromatin which literally means colored material). The major proteins involved in chromatin are histone proteins; although many other chromosomal proteins have prominent roles too. The functions of chromatin is to package DNA into smaller volume to fit in the cell, to strengthen the DNA to allow mitosis and meiosis and to serve as a mechanism to control gene expression and DNA replication.
Gene regulation in eukaryotes in a nutshell covering all the important stages of gene regulation in eukaryotes at transcriptional level, translation level and post-translational level.
A detail ppt about Genome organization with focus on all levels of organization. Most recent research and findings about CT is also added in this ppt. Detail account of 30nm fiber and its ultra structure and types is also included.
N-terminal tails of histones are the most accessible regions for modifications. These post-translational modification (PTM) of histones is a crucial step in epigenetic regulation of a gene.
Gene regulation in eukaryotes in a nutshell covering all the important stages of gene regulation in eukaryotes at transcriptional level, translation level and post-translational level.
A detail ppt about Genome organization with focus on all levels of organization. Most recent research and findings about CT is also added in this ppt. Detail account of 30nm fiber and its ultra structure and types is also included.
N-terminal tails of histones are the most accessible regions for modifications. These post-translational modification (PTM) of histones is a crucial step in epigenetic regulation of a gene.
Facts about DNA
Eukaryotic chromosomes
Chemical composition of eukaryotic chromosomes
Histones
Non-histone chromosomal protein
Scaffold proteins
Folded fibre model
Nucleosome model
H1 proteins
Histone modification
Chromatosome
Higher order of chromatin structure
Mechanism of DNA packaging
Conclusion
DNA, chromosomes and genomes Notes based on molecular biology of the cell. Biology Elite: biologyelite.weebly.com, please use together with the presentation
Cytogenetics_ Chromosmes_Dr Jagadisha T V_PPT.pptxJagadishaTV
●To study the structure of chromosomes.
● To understand the concepts of linkage and crossing over.
● To understand structural and numerical chromosomal aberrations.
Software Delivery At the Speed of AI: Inflectra Invests In AI-Powered QualityInflectra
In this insightful webinar, Inflectra explores how artificial intelligence (AI) is transforming software development and testing. Discover how AI-powered tools are revolutionizing every stage of the software development lifecycle (SDLC), from design and prototyping to testing, deployment, and monitoring.
Learn about:
• The Future of Testing: How AI is shifting testing towards verification, analysis, and higher-level skills, while reducing repetitive tasks.
• Test Automation: How AI-powered test case generation, optimization, and self-healing tests are making testing more efficient and effective.
• Visual Testing: Explore the emerging capabilities of AI in visual testing and how it's set to revolutionize UI verification.
• Inflectra's AI Solutions: See demonstrations of Inflectra's cutting-edge AI tools like the ChatGPT plugin and Azure Open AI platform, designed to streamline your testing process.
Whether you're a developer, tester, or QA professional, this webinar will give you valuable insights into how AI is shaping the future of software delivery.
GraphRAG is All You need? LLM & Knowledge GraphGuy Korland
Guy Korland, CEO and Co-founder of FalkorDB, will review two articles on the integration of language models with knowledge graphs.
1. Unifying Large Language Models and Knowledge Graphs: A Roadmap.
https://arxiv.org/abs/2306.08302
2. Microsoft Research's GraphRAG paper and a review paper on various uses of knowledge graphs:
https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/research/blog/graphrag-unlocking-llm-discovery-on-narrative-private-data/
Essentials of Automations: Optimizing FME Workflows with ParametersSafe Software
Are you looking to streamline your workflows and boost your projects’ efficiency? Do you find yourself searching for ways to add flexibility and control over your FME workflows? If so, you’re in the right place.
Join us for an insightful dive into the world of FME parameters, a critical element in optimizing workflow efficiency. This webinar marks the beginning of our three-part “Essentials of Automation” series. This first webinar is designed to equip you with the knowledge and skills to utilize parameters effectively: enhancing the flexibility, maintainability, and user control of your FME projects.
Here’s what you’ll gain:
- Essentials of FME Parameters: Understand the pivotal role of parameters, including Reader/Writer, Transformer, User, and FME Flow categories. Discover how they are the key to unlocking automation and optimization within your workflows.
- Practical Applications in FME Form: Delve into key user parameter types including choice, connections, and file URLs. Allow users to control how a workflow runs, making your workflows more reusable. Learn to import values and deliver the best user experience for your workflows while enhancing accuracy.
- Optimization Strategies in FME Flow: Explore the creation and strategic deployment of parameters in FME Flow, including the use of deployment and geometry parameters, to maximize workflow efficiency.
- Pro Tips for Success: Gain insights on parameterizing connections and leveraging new features like Conditional Visibility for clarity and simplicity.
We’ll wrap up with a glimpse into future webinars, followed by a Q&A session to address your specific questions surrounding this topic.
Don’t miss this opportunity to elevate your FME expertise and drive your projects to new heights of efficiency.
JMeter webinar - integration with InfluxDB and GrafanaRTTS
Watch this recorded webinar about real-time monitoring of application performance. See how to integrate Apache JMeter, the open-source leader in performance testing, with InfluxDB, the open-source time-series database, and Grafana, the open-source analytics and visualization application.
In this webinar, we will review the benefits of leveraging InfluxDB and Grafana when executing load tests and demonstrate how these tools are used to visualize performance metrics.
Length: 30 minutes
Session Overview
-------------------------------------------
During this webinar, we will cover the following topics while demonstrating the integrations of JMeter, InfluxDB and Grafana:
- What out-of-the-box solutions are available for real-time monitoring JMeter tests?
- What are the benefits of integrating InfluxDB and Grafana into the load testing stack?
- Which features are provided by Grafana?
- Demonstration of InfluxDB and Grafana using a practice web application
To view the webinar recording, go to:
https://www.rttsweb.com/jmeter-integration-webinar
UiPath Test Automation using UiPath Test Suite series, part 3DianaGray10
Welcome to UiPath Test Automation using UiPath Test Suite series part 3. In this session, we will cover desktop automation along with UI automation.
Topics covered:
UI automation Introduction,
UI automation Sample
Desktop automation flow
Pradeep Chinnala, Senior Consultant Automation Developer @WonderBotz and UiPath MVP
Deepak Rai, Automation Practice Lead, Boundaryless Group and UiPath MVP
Key Trends Shaping the Future of Infrastructure.pdfCheryl Hung
Keynote at DIGIT West Expo, Glasgow on 29 May 2024.
Cheryl Hung, ochery.com
Sr Director, Infrastructure Ecosystem, Arm.
The key trends across hardware, cloud and open-source; exploring how these areas are likely to mature and develop over the short and long-term, and then considering how organisations can position themselves to adapt and thrive.
Connector Corner: Automate dynamic content and events by pushing a buttonDianaGray10
Here is something new! In our next Connector Corner webinar, we will demonstrate how you can use a single workflow to:
Create a campaign using Mailchimp with merge tags/fields
Send an interactive Slack channel message (using buttons)
Have the message received by managers and peers along with a test email for review
But there’s more:
In a second workflow supporting the same use case, you’ll see:
Your campaign sent to target colleagues for approval
If the “Approve” button is clicked, a Jira/Zendesk ticket is created for the marketing design team
But—if the “Reject” button is pushed, colleagues will be alerted via Slack message
Join us to learn more about this new, human-in-the-loop capability, brought to you by Integration Service connectors.
And...
Speakers:
Akshay Agnihotri, Product Manager
Charlie Greenberg, Host
State of ICS and IoT Cyber Threat Landscape Report 2024 previewPrayukth K V
The IoT and OT threat landscape report has been prepared by the Threat Research Team at Sectrio using data from Sectrio, cyber threat intelligence farming facilities spread across over 85 cities around the world. In addition, Sectrio also runs AI-based advanced threat and payload engagement facilities that serve as sinks to attract and engage sophisticated threat actors, and newer malware including new variants and latent threats that are at an earlier stage of development.
The latest edition of the OT/ICS and IoT security Threat Landscape Report 2024 also covers:
State of global ICS asset and network exposure
Sectoral targets and attacks as well as the cost of ransom
Global APT activity, AI usage, actor and tactic profiles, and implications
Rise in volumes of AI-powered cyberattacks
Major cyber events in 2024
Malware and malicious payload trends
Cyberattack types and targets
Vulnerability exploit attempts on CVEs
Attacks on counties – USA
Expansion of bot farms – how, where, and why
In-depth analysis of the cyber threat landscape across North America, South America, Europe, APAC, and the Middle East
Why are attacks on smart factories rising?
Cyber risk predictions
Axis of attacks – Europe
Systemic attacks in the Middle East
Download the full report from here:
https://sectrio.com/resources/ot-threat-landscape-reports/sectrio-releases-ot-ics-and-iot-security-threat-landscape-report-2024/
Epistemic Interaction - tuning interfaces to provide information for AI supportAlan Dix
Paper presented at SYNERGY workshop at AVI 2024, Genoa, Italy. 3rd June 2024
https://alandix.com/academic/papers/synergy2024-epistemic/
As machine learning integrates deeper into human-computer interactions, the concept of epistemic interaction emerges, aiming to refine these interactions to enhance system adaptability. This approach encourages minor, intentional adjustments in user behaviour to enrich the data available for system learning. This paper introduces epistemic interaction within the context of human-system communication, illustrating how deliberate interaction design can improve system understanding and adaptation. Through concrete examples, we demonstrate the potential of epistemic interaction to significantly advance human-computer interaction by leveraging intuitive human communication strategies to inform system design and functionality, offering a novel pathway for enriching user-system engagements.
UiPath Test Automation using UiPath Test Suite series, part 4DianaGray10
Welcome to UiPath Test Automation using UiPath Test Suite series part 4. In this session, we will cover Test Manager overview along with SAP heatmap.
The UiPath Test Manager overview with SAP heatmap webinar offers a concise yet comprehensive exploration of the role of a Test Manager within SAP environments, coupled with the utilization of heatmaps for effective testing strategies.
Participants will gain insights into the responsibilities, challenges, and best practices associated with test management in SAP projects. Additionally, the webinar delves into the significance of heatmaps as a visual aid for identifying testing priorities, areas of risk, and resource allocation within SAP landscapes. Through this session, attendees can expect to enhance their understanding of test management principles while learning practical approaches to optimize testing processes in SAP environments using heatmap visualization techniques
What will you get from this session?
1. Insights into SAP testing best practices
2. Heatmap utilization for testing
3. Optimization of testing processes
4. Demo
Topics covered:
Execution from the test manager
Orchestrator execution result
Defect reporting
SAP heatmap example with demo
Speaker:
Deepak Rai, Automation Practice Lead, Boundaryless Group and UiPath MVP
4. Chemical composition of
chromosome:
• DNA
• Protein
• A significant amount of RNA is also associated
with chromosome because these are the sites
of RNA synthesis.
5.
6. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA):
• The main genetic constituent of the cells is
DNA. It coded information from cell to cell and
organism to organism. DNA is complexed with
proteins in a structure called Chromatin.
• It is about 40% of chromosomes.
7. Proteins:
• It is about 60% of the chromosome. Histone
proteins are present in chromosome. Histones
are positively charged due to abundance of
positive amino-acids, arginine and lysine, on
it.
8. Structural features:
Condensed and non-condensed portions:
Heterochromatin:
• These are highly condensed portions of
chromosomes.
Euchromatin:
• These are portions other than
heterochromatin.lightly stained.
9. Supercoils:
• Each chromatid is made up of many coils called
supercoils.
Coils:
• Turned fibers present in supercoils are called as colis,
which are in actual case chromatin fibers. This coiling
helps DNA to be present in small space of nucleus.
Nucleosome:
• It is basic unit of chromosome or chromatin fiber. It is
DNA; duplex is coiled around a core of eight histone
proteins.
10. • Nucleosomes are repeated after every 200
hundred nucleotides. Positively charged
histones are linked with negative charged
phosphate groups of DNA. The histone cores
thus act as magnetic forms that promote and
guides the coiling of DNA.
11. Histones or Histone proteins
• These are highly alkaline proteins found
in eukaryotic cell nuclei that package and
order the DNA into structural units called
nucleosomes.
• Histones are a group of basic proteins that
associate with DNA and help the DNA to
condense it into chromatin.
12.
13. • Some histone proteins function as spools for the
thread-like DNA to wrap around.
• Chromatin, under the microscope in its extended
form, looks like beads on a string. These beads
are called nucleosomes.
• Each nucleosome is composed of DNA wrapped
around eight histone proteins, functions like a
spool and called a histone octamer.
• Each histone octamer is made of two copies each
of the histone proteins H3, H4, H2A, and H2B.
14.
15. • The nucleosomes are then wrapped, into a 30 nm
spiral, called a solenoid, where additional H1
histones are associated with each nucleosome to
maintain the chromosomal structure.
• When salt concentration is higher, the
nucleosome bead necklace gradually assumes a
coiled form, a solenoid.
• In fact, histone proteins could act as gatekeepers
to the DNA, determining which portions of the
DNA were available for protein expression.
16.
17. Classes of Histones:
• There are two main classes of Histones:
• Core Histones
• Linker Histones
Core Histones:
In core histones following families are included
• H2A
• H2B
• H3
• H4
• Two of each of these core histone proteins assembles to
form one octameric nucleosome core particle, and
147 base pairs of DNA wrap around this core particle.
18. Linker Histones:
Linker histone included:
• H1
• H5
• The linker histone protein H1 binds the
nucleosome at the starting and ending sites of
the DNA, thus locking the DNA into place and
help in the formation of higher order structure.
• H5 histiones are individual proteins involve in the
packaging of specific region of DNA.
19.
20. Packaging of Histones
• In the core of nucleosomes the two dimers
H2A and H2B and two tetramers H3 and H4
are involve and form the tertiary structure.
• Above mention histones are relatively similar
in structure.
21.
22. Histone interactions with DNA:
There are following types of interactions:
• Hydrogen bonds between the backbone of the
DNA and the amide group on the main chain of
histones.
• Non-polar interactions between the histone
proteins and deoxyribose sugars on DNA
• Salt bridges and hydrogen bonds between basic
amino acids which are actually the side chains
(especially lysine and arginine) and phosphate
oxides on DNA.
23. • Highly active genes have less histone while
non-active genes have highly linked with
histones during interphase. Histone proteins
has a highly positively charge on N-terminus
having lysine and arginine residues.
24. Types of modification in Histones:
• Histones can be changed to alter how much
packing the DNA is capable of. There are many
modifications that affect how well DNA is
packaged.
• The three main types of modifications can be
seen in the following table:
26. • Normally histones are positively charged but
with the modification of methylation it
becomes hydrophobic which enable the
histone to more tightly pack.
• Acetylation and phosphorylation make the
histone more negative which weakens the
packing ability of histones due to the repelling
of negative-negative charges.
27. Chromatin
• It is complex nucleic acid and protein which
condenses to form chromosome during cell
division.
• In eukaryotes it is found within cell nucleus
whereas in case of prokaryotes it is present in
nucleoid.
• It can easily recognize through staining
therefore its name, literally means colored
material.
28. Functions:
• To package DNA into smaller volume so that
they fit easily into the cell.
• It strengthens DNA to allow mitosis and
meiosis.
• To control expression and DNA replication, it
serves as a mechanism.
31. Heterochromatin
• It is the tightly packed form of DNA, which
comes in different varieties.
• These varieties come between the two
continuous extremes of constitutive and
facultative heterochromatin.
• Their function is in gene expression.
32. • It is not active and under specific
environmental and developmental signaling,
loses its condensed structure and become
active.
• Centromere and telomere both are
heterochromatin as in the Barr body off,
second inactivated X chromosome in female.
33.
34. function
• Gene regulation and protection of
chromosome integrity
• Dense packing of DNA makes less accessible to
protein factors that bind with DNA or its
associated sites.
• It results in formation of epigenetic
inheritance.
35. Constitutive Heterochromatin
• All of its cells pack in the same region of DNA
so any gene in all cells would be poorly
expressed.i.e.1, 9, 16 and Y human
chromosome contain large region of
constitutive chromatin.
• In most organisms, it is present around
chromosome centromere and near telomeres.
36. • Constitutive chromatin affect the nearer genes
and usually repetitive and form centromere or
telomeres in addition to acting as an attractor
for gene expression and repression signals
37. Facultative heterochromatin
• Formation of facultative heterochromatin is
regulated and associated with morphogenesis or
differentiation.i.e. X chromosome inactivation in
female mammals.
• facultative chromatin is the result of genes
silenced in a mechanism of histone methylation.
• One X chromosome is packs as silences in case of
facultative and other cell packed as euchromatin
and expressed.
38. Euchromatin
• It is lightly packed form of DNA, under active
transcription with rich in gene concentration.
• 92% of human genome is euchromatic.
39. Functions
• Active transcription of DNA to mRNA products.
• Its unfolded structure allows the gene
regulatory proteins and RNA polymerase to
bind with DNA sequence so to initiate the
transcription process.
40. Sr. Heterochromatin
no.
Euchromatin
1
These are highly condensed portions of
chromosomes.
These are loosely packed portions of
chromosomes.
2
These are darkly stained regions of
chromosomes.
They are lightly stained regions of
chromosomes.
3
They remain permanently condensed.
It is condensed only during cell division when
compact packaging facilitates the movement of
chromosomes.
4
Their DNA is never exposed.
At time other than division, it is present in open
configuration and its genes can be expressed.
5
It is found in Eukaryotes.
It is found in Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes both.
6
It is genetically inactive form of
chromatin.
It is genetically active form of chromatin.
7
It replicates late.
It is earlier replicative