2. What are Chromosomes?
In the nucleus of each cell, the DNA molecule
is packaged into thread-like structures called
chromosomes. Each chromosome is made up of
DNA tightly coiled many times around proteins
called histones that support its structure.
Chromosomes were first described by Strasburger
(1815), and the term ‘chromosome’ was first used
by Waldeyer in 1888. They appear as rod-shaped
dark stained bodies during the metaphase stage
of mitosis when cells are stained with a suitable
basic dye and viewed under a light microscope.
3.
4. • Chromosomes are the nuclear components of the special organization, individuality, and function
that are capable of self-reproduction and play a vital role in heredity, mutation, variation and
evolutionary development of the species.
• Each chromosome is made up of DNA tightly coiled many times around proteins that support its
structure.
• The proteins that bind to the DNA to form eukaryotic chromosomes are traditionally divided into
two classes: the histones and the non-histone chromosomal proteins.
• The complex of both classes of protein with the nuclear DNA of eukaryotic cells is known as
chromatin.
• Chromatin are a highly compacted structure consisting of packaged DNA and necessary so as to fit
DNA into the nucleus.
• The assembly of DNA into chromatin involves a range of events, beginning with the formation of
the basic unit, the nucleosome, and ultimately giving rise to a complex organization of specific
domains within the nucleus.
• In the first step of this process, DNA is condensed into an 11 nm fiber that represents an
approximate 6-fold level of compaction. This is achieved through nucleosome assembly.
• The nucleosome is the smallest structural component of chromatin and is produced through
interactions between DNA and histone proteins.
• Each nucleosome consists of histone octamer core, assembled from the histones H2A, H2B, H3 and
H4 (or other histone variants in some cases) and a segment of DNA that wraps around the histone
core. Adjacent nucleosomes are connected via “linker DNA”.
5. Eukaryotic Chromosomes
• The large amount of genomic DNA in a eukaryotic cell is tightly packaged in
chromosomes contained within a specialized organelle, the nucleus.
• With the exception of the sex chromosomes, diploid eukaryotic organisms such as
humans have two copies of each chromosome, one inherited from the father and
one from the mother.
• Chromosomes contain both DNA and protein.
• Most of the protein on a weight basis is histones, but there are also many
thousands of other proteins found in far less abundance and these are collectively
called non- histone proteins (NHP).
• This nuclear DNA–protein complex is called chromatin.
• In the nucleus, each chromosome contains a single linear double-stranded DNA
molecule.
• The length of the packaged DNA molecule varies. In humans, the shortest DNA
molecule in a chromosome is about 1.6 cm and the longest is about 8.4 cm.
• The extensive packaging of DNA in chromosomes results from three levels of
folding involving nucleosomes, 30 nm filaments and radial loops.
6. • a. Nucleosomes
• The first level of packaging involves the binding of the chromosomal DNA to histones.
• Overall, in chromosomes, the ratio of DNA to histones on a weight basis is approximately 1:1.
• There are five main types of histones called H1, H2A, H2B, H3 and H4.
• Histones are very basic proteins; about 25% of their amino acids are lysine or arginine so histones
have a large number of positively charged amino acid side-chains.
• These positively charged groups therefore bind to the negatively charged phosphate groups of DNA
• b. 30 nm fiber
• If nuclei are lysed very gently, the chromatin is seen to exist as a 30 nm diameter fiber.
• The fiber is formed by a histone H1 molecule binding to the linker DNA of each nucleosome at the
point where it enters and leaves the nucleosome.
• The histone H1 molecules interact with each other, pulling the nucleosomes together.
• c. Radial loops
• When chromosomes are depleted of histones, they are seen to have a central fibrous ‘protein
scaffold’ (or nuclear matrix) to which the DNA is attached in loops.
• Therefore, in vivo it seems likely that the next order of packaging involves the attachment of the 30
nm fiber to multiple locations on this central protein scaffold in a series of radial loops.
• The mitochondria and chloroplasts of eukaryotic cells also contain DNA but, unlike the nuclear
DNA, this consists of double-stranded circular molecules resembling bacterial chromosomes.
