SOS response was discovered by Miroslav Radman. It's a part of DNA repair system- synthesizes enzymes required for DNA repair. Cellular response to UV damage.
SOS response was discovered by Miroslav Radman. It's a part of DNA repair system- synthesizes enzymes required for DNA repair. Cellular response to UV damage.
A detail ppt about Genome organization with focus on all levels of organization. Most recent research and findings about CT is also added in this ppt. Detail account of 30nm fiber and its ultra structure and types is also included.
DNA polymerases are a group of enzymes that are used to make copies of DNA templates, essentially used in DNA replication mechanisms. These enzymes make new copies of DNA from existing templates and also function by repairing the synthesized DNA to prevent mutations. DNA polymerase catalyzes the formation of the phosphodiester bond which makes up the backbone of DNA molecules. It uses a magnesium ion in catalytic activity to balance the charge from the phosphate group.
Dna supercoiling and role of topoisomerasesYashwanth B S
supercoiling is one of the important process to condenses the huge amount of DNA to fit inside the histone and its also plays a role during the replication ,transcription etc..,these activities is carried out by an enzyme called topoisomerases.
Basics of Undergraduate/university fellows
Transcription is more complicated in eukaryotes than in prokaryotes because
eukaryotes possess three different classes of RNA polymerases and because of the
way in which transcripts are processed to their functional forms.
More proteins and transcription factors are involved in eukaryotic transcription.
A detail ppt about Genome organization with focus on all levels of organization. Most recent research and findings about CT is also added in this ppt. Detail account of 30nm fiber and its ultra structure and types is also included.
DNA polymerases are a group of enzymes that are used to make copies of DNA templates, essentially used in DNA replication mechanisms. These enzymes make new copies of DNA from existing templates and also function by repairing the synthesized DNA to prevent mutations. DNA polymerase catalyzes the formation of the phosphodiester bond which makes up the backbone of DNA molecules. It uses a magnesium ion in catalytic activity to balance the charge from the phosphate group.
Dna supercoiling and role of topoisomerasesYashwanth B S
supercoiling is one of the important process to condenses the huge amount of DNA to fit inside the histone and its also plays a role during the replication ,transcription etc..,these activities is carried out by an enzyme called topoisomerases.
Basics of Undergraduate/university fellows
Transcription is more complicated in eukaryotes than in prokaryotes because
eukaryotes possess three different classes of RNA polymerases and because of the
way in which transcripts are processed to their functional forms.
More proteins and transcription factors are involved in eukaryotic transcription.
Facts about DNA
Eukaryotic chromosomes
Chemical composition of eukaryotic chromosomes
Histones
Non-histone chromosomal protein
Scaffold proteins
Folded fibre model
Nucleosome model
H1 proteins
Histone modification
Chromatosome
Higher order of chromatin structure
Mechanism of DNA packaging
Conclusion
What is Genome ?
Types of Genome
Genetic Organization
Genome organization in prokaryotes
BACTERIAL GENOME
Importance of Plasmid
Packaging of DNA
Genome organization in eukaryotes
Chemical composition of chromatin
Nucleosome model
Prokaryotic Genome v/s Eukaryotic Genome
Cytogenetics_ Chromosmes_Dr Jagadisha T V_PPT.pptxJagadishaTV
●To study the structure of chromosomes.
● To understand the concepts of linkage and crossing over.
● To understand structural and numerical chromosomal aberrations.
Organization of genetic materials in eukaryotes and prokaryotesBHUMI GAMETI
What is Genome ?
Types of Genome
Packaging of DNA into chromosome
GENOME ORGANIZATION IN PROKARYOTES
Plasmids
Plasmids
Nucleoid
Enzyme
GENOME ORGANIZATION IN EUKARYOTES
Chemical composition of chromatin
Nucleosome model.
Levels of DNA Packaging
Prokaryotic Genome v/s Eukaryotic Genome
Similar to Genome organization in eukaryotes (molecular biology) (20)
A detailed explanation of cloning strategies which involves isolation of DNA fragments from the sample and introduction in to a vector with restriction enzymes and introduced in to host by different methods and finally screening of the host cells with the recombinants based on protein,nucleicacid and antibiotic assays
control of gene expression by sigma factor and post transcriptional controlIndrajaDoradla
explanation of control of gene expression by sigma factor and decription of sigma factor and detailed explation of post transcriptional control by antisense technology and rna i
description of transgenic animals and production with desired traits using different methods and their applications and their advantages and disadvantages
This pdf is about the Schizophrenia.
For more details visit on YouTube; @SELF-EXPLANATORY;
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCAiarMZDNhe1A3Rnpr_WkzA/videos
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Slide 1: Title Slide
Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Slide 2: Introduction to Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Definition: Extrachromosomal inheritance refers to the transmission of genetic material that is not found within the nucleus.
Key Components: Involves genes located in mitochondria, chloroplasts, and plasmids.
Slide 3: Mitochondrial Inheritance
Mitochondria: Organelles responsible for energy production.
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in mitochondria.
Inheritance Pattern: Maternally inherited, meaning it is passed from mothers to all their offspring.
Diseases: Examples include Leber’s hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) and mitochondrial myopathy.
Slide 4: Chloroplast Inheritance
Chloroplasts: Organelles responsible for photosynthesis in plants.
Chloroplast DNA (cpDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in chloroplasts.
Inheritance Pattern: Often maternally inherited in most plants, but can vary in some species.
Examples: Variegation in plants, where leaf color patterns are determined by chloroplast DNA.
Slide 5: Plasmid Inheritance
Plasmids: Small, circular DNA molecules found in bacteria and some eukaryotes.
Features: Can carry antibiotic resistance genes and can be transferred between cells through processes like conjugation.
Significance: Important in biotechnology for gene cloning and genetic engineering.
Slide 6: Mechanisms of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Non-Mendelian Patterns: Do not follow Mendel’s laws of inheritance.
Cytoplasmic Segregation: During cell division, organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts are randomly distributed to daughter cells.
Heteroplasmy: Presence of more than one type of organellar genome within a cell, leading to variation in expression.
Slide 7: Examples of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Four O’clock Plant (Mirabilis jalapa): Shows variegated leaves due to different cpDNA in leaf cells.
Petite Mutants in Yeast: Result from mutations in mitochondrial DNA affecting respiration.
Slide 8: Importance of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Evolution: Provides insight into the evolution of eukaryotic cells.
Medicine: Understanding mitochondrial inheritance helps in diagnosing and treating mitochondrial diseases.
Agriculture: Chloroplast inheritance can be used in plant breeding and genetic modification.
Slide 9: Recent Research and Advances
Gene Editing: Techniques like CRISPR-Cas9 are being used to edit mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA.
Therapies: Development of mitochondrial replacement therapy (MRT) for preventing mitochondrial diseases.
Slide 10: Conclusion
Summary: Extrachromosomal inheritance involves the transmission of genetic material outside the nucleus and plays a crucial role in genetics, medicine, and biotechnology.
Future Directions: Continued research and technological advancements hold promise for new treatments and applications.
Slide 11: Questions and Discussion
Invite Audience: Open the floor for any questions or further discussion on the topic.
Cancer cell metabolism: special Reference to Lactate PathwayAADYARAJPANDEY1
Normal Cell Metabolism:
Cellular respiration describes the series of steps that cells use to break down sugar and other chemicals to get the energy we need to function.
Energy is stored in the bonds of glucose and when glucose is broken down, much of that energy is released.
Cell utilize energy in the form of ATP.
The first step of respiration is called glycolysis. In a series of steps, glycolysis breaks glucose into two smaller molecules - a chemical called pyruvate. A small amount of ATP is formed during this process.
Most healthy cells continue the breakdown in a second process, called the Kreb's cycle. The Kreb's cycle allows cells to “burn” the pyruvates made in glycolysis to get more ATP.
The last step in the breakdown of glucose is called oxidative phosphorylation (Ox-Phos).
It takes place in specialized cell structures called mitochondria. This process produces a large amount of ATP. Importantly, cells need oxygen to complete oxidative phosphorylation.
If a cell completes only glycolysis, only 2 molecules of ATP are made per glucose. However, if the cell completes the entire respiration process (glycolysis - Kreb's - oxidative phosphorylation), about 36 molecules of ATP are created, giving it much more energy to use.
IN CANCER CELL:
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
introduction to WARBERG PHENOMENA:
WARBURG EFFECT Usually, cancer cells are highly glycolytic (glucose addiction) and take up more glucose than do normal cells from outside.
Otto Heinrich Warburg (; 8 October 1883 – 1 August 1970) In 1931 was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology for his "discovery of the nature and mode of action of the respiratory enzyme.
WARNBURG EFFECT : cancer cells under aerobic (well-oxygenated) conditions to metabolize glucose to lactate (aerobic glycolysis) is known as the Warburg effect. Warburg made the observation that tumor slices consume glucose and secrete lactate at a higher rate than normal tissues.
Deep Behavioral Phenotyping in Systems Neuroscience for Functional Atlasing a...Ana Luísa Pinho
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) provides means to characterize brain activations in response to behavior. However, cognitive neuroscience has been limited to group-level effects referring to the performance of specific tasks. To obtain the functional profile of elementary cognitive mechanisms, the combination of brain responses to many tasks is required. Yet, to date, both structural atlases and parcellation-based activations do not fully account for cognitive function and still present several limitations. Further, they do not adapt overall to individual characteristics. In this talk, I will give an account of deep-behavioral phenotyping strategies, namely data-driven methods in large task-fMRI datasets, to optimize functional brain-data collection and improve inference of effects-of-interest related to mental processes. Key to this approach is the employment of fast multi-functional paradigms rich on features that can be well parametrized and, consequently, facilitate the creation of psycho-physiological constructs to be modelled with imaging data. Particular emphasis will be given to music stimuli when studying high-order cognitive mechanisms, due to their ecological nature and quality to enable complex behavior compounded by discrete entities. I will also discuss how deep-behavioral phenotyping and individualized models applied to neuroimaging data can better account for the subject-specific organization of domain-general cognitive systems in the human brain. Finally, the accumulation of functional brain signatures brings the possibility to clarify relationships among tasks and create a univocal link between brain systems and mental functions through: (1) the development of ontologies proposing an organization of cognitive processes; and (2) brain-network taxonomies describing functional specialization. To this end, tools to improve commensurability in cognitive science are necessary, such as public repositories, ontology-based platforms and automated meta-analysis tools. I will thus discuss some brain-atlasing resources currently under development, and their applicability in cognitive as well as clinical neuroscience.
THE IMPORTANCE OF MARTIAN ATMOSPHERE SAMPLE RETURN.Sérgio Sacani
The return of a sample of near-surface atmosphere from Mars would facilitate answers to several first-order science questions surrounding the formation and evolution of the planet. One of the important aspects of terrestrial planet formation in general is the role that primary atmospheres played in influencing the chemistry and structure of the planets and their antecedents. Studies of the martian atmosphere can be used to investigate the role of a primary atmosphere in its history. Atmosphere samples would also inform our understanding of the near-surface chemistry of the planet, and ultimately the prospects for life. High-precision isotopic analyses of constituent gases are needed to address these questions, requiring that the analyses are made on returned samples rather than in situ.
What is greenhouse gasses and how many gasses are there to affect the Earth.moosaasad1975
What are greenhouse gasses how they affect the earth and its environment what is the future of the environment and earth how the weather and the climate effects.
2. Gene:
It is a unit of heridity which is transferred from a parent to offspring and
held to determine some charecteristic to offspring
Genome:
The entire set of genetic information in an organism
It is encoded in DNA or RNA in case of many viruses
It includes different types of genes they are
Structural genes:
DNA segments that code for some specific RNAs or proteins encode for
mRNAs, tRNAs, SnRNAs
Functional sequences:
The sequences that are regulatory elements such as initiation site,
promoter site, operator site
Non functional sequences:
It includes introns and repetetive sequences
3. Nucleus:
In eukaryotes nucleus is the heart of the cell which serves as distinguish feature
of eukaryotic cell.the genomic material is present in the nucleus which
separates cytoplasm with the nuclear membrane
• Nucleus contain many thread like coiled structures which remain suspended
in the nucleoplasm which are known as chromatin substance
• Chromatin is the complex combination of DNA and proteins that makes up
chromosomes
• The major proteins involved in chromatin are histone proteins although
many other chromosomal proteins have prominent roles too
• The function of chromatin is to package DNA in to smaller volume to fit in
the cell,to strengthen the DNA to allow mitosis and meiosis and to serve as
mechanism to control gene expression and DNA replication
4. • The information stored in DNA is organized and replicated and read
with the help of a variety of DNA binding proteins
Structural proteins-histones (packing proteins):
• Main structural proteins found in eukaryotic cell
• Low molwt basic proteins with high proportion of positively charged
aminoacids(lysine and arginine)
• Bound to DNA along most of its length
• The positively charged histones bind to the negatively charged DNA
and play a crucial role in packaging of long DNA molecules
• Types of histones H1,H2A,H2B,H3,H4
• Ratio H1:1, H2A:2, H2B:2, H3:2, H4:2
• The H1 histone is called linker histone and the remaining histones
forms core particle
5. Non histone chromosomal proteins:
• These serve as structural roles
• These take part in genetic processes such as transcription and
replication
Eg: scaffold proteins
• Scaffold means to provide or support with a raised frame network or
platform
• A protein whose main function is to bring other proteins together for
them to interact
• When chromatin is treated with a concentrated salt solution it removes
histones and most of the other chromosomal proteins having a
skeleton to which DNA was attached known as scaffold proteins
• These scaffold proteins play a role in the folding and packaging of
chromosome
6. GENOME ORGANIZATION MODELS
They are different models explained for genome organization in eukaryotes
1. Multi stranded model
2. Folded fibre model
3. Nucleosome model most widely accepted
Muti stranded model
• This model was put forth by Ris in 1961 and Ris and Chandler in
1963. According to this model, the chromosome is multi-stranded,
i.e., it contains several DNA double helices arranged parallel to
each other. Each chromosome is divided into two chromatids, each
chromatid is made of two “half chromatids” and each half
chromatid is composed of two “quarter chromatids.”
• Each “quarter chromatid” is, in turn, made of four chromatin
fibres and each chromatin fibre contains 2 DNA double helices.
The diameter of the DNA double helix is 2 nm, and two DNA
molecules are associated with protein to make the chromatin fibre.
• However, according to the recent studies, the chromosome is
definitely not multi-stranded.
7. Folded fibre model
DuPraw in 1965 proposed this model on the basis of electron
microscopic studies of human chromosomes.
the feautres of this model are
• Each chromosome contains a single but long and coiled chromatin
fibre
• The chromatin fibre has DNA double helix with associated proteins
.this DNA is packed spirally to form a fibre
• The fibre is then coiled to form 10-100A°fibre called type A fibre and
it is further coiled to form 200-250A° to form type B fibre. This is
further folded to form chromatid
• The fibre contain DNA and histones in super coiled condition
,histone proteins bound on outer side of DNA and form a shell aroud
the DNA . Dupraw called this as histone shell
• The chromatin fibre (chromatid) replicates during S phase of call
cycle to produce two sister chromatids which are held together by the
un-replicated regions
9. Nucleosome model
Roger Kornberg proposed that DNA and histones were
organized into repeated units called nucleosome.
• Nucleosome model is the most accepted model of chromatin.
• Nucleosomes are the fundamental repeating units of
chromatin.
• Nucleosome represents the ‘beads’ as proposed in the ‘beads
on string’ organization of chromatin. Each nucleosome
contains a nucleosome core particle. composed of a disc
shaped structure of eight histone proteins.
• The nucleosome core composed of two molecules of each of
the four histones H2A, H2B, H3 and H4 and his structure is
called the histone octamer.
• The DNA helix is wrapped as super helical left handed turn
around this histone octamer core.
• Each histone core is encircled by 1.8 turns of DNA.
• This 1.8 turn of DNA represents about 146 base pairs.
10. • Each nucleosome is about 10 nm in diameter.
• The H1 histone stays outside the histone octamer.
• Adjacent nucleosomes are connected by a short stretch of DNA
called linker DNA.
• Linker DNA is about 10 to 80 bp in length. H1 histones bind to
the liner DNA.
• H1 histone binds near the site where DNA enters and exits the
nucleosome.
11. • The interaction of histones and DNA in nucleosome is stabilized by
several types of non-covalent bonds.
• Among these bonds, the ionic bonds formed between the negatively
charged phosphate groups in the DNA with the positively charged
amino groups of histones were very important
• Nucleosome units organized into more compact structure of 30 nm
in diameter called 30 nm fibers
• The H1 histone plays very important role in the formation of the
30-nm fiber.
• The formation of 30 nm fiber shortens genetic material (DNA)
another seven-fold.
• The linker DNA regions in 30-nm structure are variably bent and
twisted to attain the folding pattern.
• This 30 nm fibres are further folded to 300nm loop model with the
help of scaffold and other proteins and these are further condensed
to 700nm higher condensed loop model and finally to form 1400nm
metaphase chromosome during cell division
14. The Importance of DNA supercoiling
• DNA supercoiling is important for DNA packaging within all
cells. Because the length of DNA can be thousands of times
that of a cell, packaging this genetic material into the
nucleus is a difficult . Supercoiling of DNA reduces the
space and allows for much more DNA to be packaged.
• DNA packaging is greatly increased during nuclear division
events such as mitosis or meiosis, where DNA must be
compacted and segregated to daughter cells. Condensins and
cohesins are structural maintenance of chromosome (SMC)
proteins that aid in the condensation of sister chromatids and
the linkage of the centromere in sister chromatids. These
SMC proteins induce positive supercoils.