it describes transcription with simple diagram and animation. its steps and inhibitors are described for both eukaryotes and prokaryotes. it will be easily understood by UG students . post transcriptional modification of all the RNA are also described with diagrams.
it describes transcription with simple diagram and animation. its steps and inhibitors are described for both eukaryotes and prokaryotes. it will be easily understood by UG students . post transcriptional modification of all the RNA are also described with diagrams.
INTRODUCTION.
HISTORY.
PROCESS OF TRANSCRIPTION.
STAGES OF TRANSCRIPTION.
ENZYME INVOLVES IN TRANSCRIPTION.
TERMINATION.
PROKARYOTES.
Transcription terminators.
EUKARYOTES.
Two models for termination.
CONCLUSION.
REFERENCES.
INTRODUCTION.
HISTORY.
PROCESS OF TRANSCRIPTION.
STAGES OF TRANSCRIPTION.
ENZYME INVOLVES IN TRANSCRIPTION.
TERMINATION.
PROKARYOTES.
Transcription terminators.
EUKARYOTES.
Two models for termination.
CONCLUSION.
REFERENCES.
Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, a frontier discipline of modern science, has facilitated revolutionary developments in the fields of agriculture, industry, health and environment by genomic modification of animals, plants and microorganisms.
The nucleotide structure ,consists of
the nitrogenous base ,attached to the 1’ carbon of deoxyribose
,
the phosphate group attached to the 5’ carbon of deoxyribose
,
a free hydroxyl group (-OH) ,at the 3’ carbon of deoxyribose,1. DNA HELICASES,
to separate the strand,
2. GYRASE (Topoisomerases),
unwind the supercoil,
3. Single strand binding protein (SSBP)
, activity of helicase,
keep two strand separate,
protect DNA from nuclease degradation,
release after replication,
Introduction to protein , Structure of Amino acid, Asymmetric carbon, Nomenclature of amino acid, Classification of amino acid, Properties & functions of amino acids, Definition of protein, Peptide bond
The prostate is an exocrine gland of the male mammalian reproductive system
It is a walnut-sized gland that forms part of the male reproductive system and is located in front of the rectum and just below the urinary bladder
Function is to store and secrete a clear, slightly alkaline fluid that constitutes 10-30% of the volume of the seminal fluid that along with the spermatozoa, constitutes semen
A healthy human prostate measures (4cm-vertical, by 3cm-horizontal, 2cm ant-post ).
It surrounds the urethra just below the urinary bladder. It has anterior, median, posterior and two lateral lobes
It’s work is regulated by androgens which are responsible for male sex characteristics
Generalised disease of the prostate due to hormonal derangement which leads to non malignant enlargement of the gland (increase in the number of epithelial cells and stromal tissue)to cause compression of the urethra leading to symptoms (LUTS
Recomendações da OMS sobre cuidados maternos e neonatais para uma experiência pós-natal positiva.
Em consonância com os ODS – Objetivos do Desenvolvimento Sustentável e a Estratégia Global para a Saúde das Mulheres, Crianças e Adolescentes, e aplicando uma abordagem baseada nos direitos humanos, os esforços de cuidados pós-natais devem expandir-se para além da cobertura e da simples sobrevivência, de modo a incluir cuidados de qualidade.
Estas diretrizes visam melhorar a qualidade dos cuidados pós-natais essenciais e de rotina prestados às mulheres e aos recém-nascidos, com o objetivo final de melhorar a saúde e o bem-estar materno e neonatal.
Uma “experiência pós-natal positiva” é um resultado importante para todas as mulheres que dão à luz e para os seus recém-nascidos, estabelecendo as bases para a melhoria da saúde e do bem-estar a curto e longo prazo. Uma experiência pós-natal positiva é definida como aquela em que as mulheres, pessoas que gestam, os recém-nascidos, os casais, os pais, os cuidadores e as famílias recebem informação consistente, garantia e apoio de profissionais de saúde motivados; e onde um sistema de saúde flexível e com recursos reconheça as necessidades das mulheres e dos bebês e respeite o seu contexto cultural.
Estas diretrizes consolidadas apresentam algumas recomendações novas e já bem fundamentadas sobre cuidados pós-natais de rotina para mulheres e neonatos que recebem cuidados no pós-parto em unidades de saúde ou na comunidade, independentemente dos recursos disponíveis.
É fornecido um conjunto abrangente de recomendações para cuidados durante o período puerperal, com ênfase nos cuidados essenciais que todas as mulheres e recém-nascidos devem receber, e com a devida atenção à qualidade dos cuidados; isto é, a entrega e a experiência do cuidado recebido. Estas diretrizes atualizam e ampliam as recomendações da OMS de 2014 sobre cuidados pós-natais da mãe e do recém-nascido e complementam as atuais diretrizes da OMS sobre a gestão de complicações pós-natais.
O estabelecimento da amamentação e o manejo das principais intercorrências é contemplada.
Recomendamos muito.
Vamos discutir essas recomendações no nosso curso de pós-graduação em Aleitamento no Instituto Ciclos.
Esta publicação só está disponível em inglês até o momento.
Prof. Marcus Renato de Carvalho
www.agostodourado.com
Report Back from SGO 2024: What’s the Latest in Cervical Cancer?bkling
Are you curious about what’s new in cervical cancer research or unsure what the findings mean? Join Dr. Emily Ko, a gynecologic oncologist at Penn Medicine, to learn about the latest updates from the Society of Gynecologic Oncology (SGO) 2024 Annual Meeting on Women’s Cancer. Dr. Ko will discuss what the research presented at the conference means for you and answer your questions about the new developments.
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE IN HEALTHCARE.pdfAnujkumaranit
Artificial intelligence (AI) refers to the simulation of human intelligence processes by machines, especially computer systems. It encompasses tasks such as learning, reasoning, problem-solving, perception, and language understanding. AI technologies are revolutionizing various fields, from healthcare to finance, by enabling machines to perform tasks that typically require human intelligence.
Acute scrotum is a general term referring to an emergency condition affecting the contents or the wall of the scrotum.
There are a number of conditions that present acutely, predominantly with pain and/or swelling
A careful and detailed history and examination, and in some cases, investigations allow differentiation between these diagnoses. A prompt diagnosis is essential as the patient may require urgent surgical intervention
Testicular torsion refers to twisting of the spermatic cord, causing ischaemia of the testicle.
Testicular torsion results from inadequate fixation of the testis to the tunica vaginalis producing ischemia from reduced arterial inflow and venous outflow obstruction.
The prevalence of testicular torsion in adult patients hospitalized with acute scrotal pain is approximately 25 to 50 percent
263778731218 Abortion Clinic /Pills In Harare ,sisternakatoto
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Flu Vaccine Alert in Bangalore Karnatakaaddon Scans
As flu season approaches, health officials in Bangalore, Karnataka, are urging residents to get their flu vaccinations. The seasonal flu, while common, can lead to severe health complications, particularly for vulnerable populations such as young children, the elderly, and those with underlying health conditions.
Dr. Vidisha Kumari, a leading epidemiologist in Bangalore, emphasizes the importance of getting vaccinated. "The flu vaccine is our best defense against the influenza virus. It not only protects individuals but also helps prevent the spread of the virus in our communities," he says.
This year, the flu season is expected to coincide with a potential increase in other respiratory illnesses. The Karnataka Health Department has launched an awareness campaign highlighting the significance of flu vaccinations. They have set up multiple vaccination centers across Bangalore, making it convenient for residents to receive their shots.
To encourage widespread vaccination, the government is also collaborating with local schools, workplaces, and community centers to facilitate vaccination drives. Special attention is being given to ensuring that the vaccine is accessible to all, including marginalized communities who may have limited access to healthcare.
Residents are reminded that the flu vaccine is safe and effective. Common side effects are mild and may include soreness at the injection site, mild fever, or muscle aches. These side effects are generally short-lived and far less severe than the flu itself.
Healthcare providers are also stressing the importance of continuing COVID-19 precautions. Wearing masks, practicing good hand hygiene, and maintaining social distancing are still crucial, especially in crowded places.
Protect yourself and your loved ones by getting vaccinated. Together, we can help keep Bangalore healthy and safe this flu season. For more information on vaccination centers and schedules, residents can visit the Karnataka Health Department’s official website or follow their social media pages.
Stay informed, stay safe, and get your flu shot today!
Pulmonary Thromboembolism - etilogy, types, medical- Surgical and nursing man...VarunMahajani
Disruption of blood supply to lung alveoli due to blockage of one or more pulmonary blood vessels is called as Pulmonary thromboembolism. In this presentation we will discuss its causes, types and its management in depth.
Tom Selleck Health: A Comprehensive Look at the Iconic Actor’s Wellness Journeygreendigital
Tom Selleck, an enduring figure in Hollywood. has captivated audiences for decades with his rugged charm, iconic moustache. and memorable roles in television and film. From his breakout role as Thomas Magnum in Magnum P.I. to his current portrayal of Frank Reagan in Blue Bloods. Selleck's career has spanned over 50 years. But beyond his professional achievements. fans have often been curious about Tom Selleck Health. especially as he has aged in the public eye.
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Introduction
Many have been interested in Tom Selleck health. not only because of his enduring presence on screen but also because of the challenges. and lifestyle choices he has faced and made over the years. This article delves into the various aspects of Tom Selleck health. exploring his fitness regimen, diet, mental health. and the challenges he has encountered as he ages. We'll look at how he maintains his well-being. the health issues he has faced, and his approach to ageing .
Early Life and Career
Childhood and Athletic Beginnings
Tom Selleck was born on January 29, 1945, in Detroit, Michigan, and grew up in Sherman Oaks, California. From an early age, he was involved in sports, particularly basketball. which played a significant role in his physical development. His athletic pursuits continued into college. where he attended the University of Southern California (USC) on a basketball scholarship. This early involvement in sports laid a strong foundation for his physical health and disciplined lifestyle.
Transition to Acting
Selleck's transition from an athlete to an actor came with its physical demands. His first significant role in "Magnum P.I." required him to perform various stunts and maintain a fit appearance. This role, which he played from 1980 to 1988. necessitated a rigorous fitness routine to meet the show's demands. setting the stage for his long-term commitment to health and wellness.
Fitness Regimen
Workout Routine
Tom Selleck health and fitness regimen has evolved. adapting to his changing roles and age. During his "Magnum, P.I." days. Selleck's workouts were intense and focused on building and maintaining muscle mass. His routine included weightlifting, cardiovascular exercises. and specific training for the stunts he performed on the show.
Selleck adjusted his fitness routine as he aged to suit his body's needs. Today, his workouts focus on maintaining flexibility, strength, and cardiovascular health. He incorporates low-impact exercises such as swimming, walking, and light weightlifting. This balanced approach helps him stay fit without putting undue strain on his joints and muscles.
Importance of Flexibility and Mobility
In recent years, Selleck has emphasized the importance of flexibility and mobility in his fitness regimen. Understanding the natural decline in muscle mass and joint flexibility with age. he includes stretching and yoga in his routine. These practices help prevent injuries, improve posture, and maintain mobilit
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Ve...kevinkariuki227
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
micro teaching on communication m.sc nursing.pdfAnurag Sharma
Microteaching is a unique model of practice teaching. It is a viable instrument for the. desired change in the teaching behavior or the behavior potential which, in specified types of real. classroom situations, tends to facilitate the achievement of specified types of objectives.
Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility...Sujoy Dasgupta
Dr Sujoy Dasgupta presented the study on "Couples presenting to the infertility clinic- Do they really have infertility? – The unexplored stories of non-consummation" in the 13th Congress of the Asia Pacific Initiative on Reproduction (ASPIRE 2024) at Manila on 24 May, 2024.
Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
6. What is Replication?
Fundamental process by which cell copies its DNA to transfer the genetic
information to daughter cells
DNA directed DNA synthesis where the base sequence of daughter DNA (newly
synthesized DNA) is identical to the base sequence of parent DNA (template).
The major event in S-phase of cell cycle
6
8. 8
Replication is the basis
for the biological
inheritance
Precise and accurate DNA replication is
necessary to prevent genetic abnormalities
which often lead to cell death or disease
Cell must replicate its
DNA before division
Ultimately, exactly two identical
semi-conserved chromosomes are
produced
9. # DNA template
# Primer (free 3'-OH group):
Short RNA segment having 10 nucleotides or a preexisting cellular
DNA fragment
# Magnesium ion
# Activated deoxy nucleoside tri-
phosphate (dNTP):
dATP, dGTP, dCTP, dTTP
# DNA Polymerase
# DNAP associated proteins and
enzymes
Primase, Helicase, SSBP, DNA
Ligase, Topoisomerase (DNA gyrase)
Requirements for Replication
10. Enzyme & Protein Function
DNAP
(DNA directed DNAP)
# Catalyzes the formation of ester bonds between nucleotides
# Polymerization of dNTP to synthesize DNA with proof reading
Primase Synthesis of RNA Primer
Helicase Unwinding / melting of DS DNA in to two single strands
Single Strand Binding
Protein
(SSBP)
Prevention of premature reassociation / annealing of melted DNA
DNA ligase Seals the single strand nick & connects the okazaki fragments on lagging
strand
Topoisomerase / DNA
Gyrase
Relieves torsional strain resulting from helicase induced unwinding
(Helps to overcome topological crisis)
11. Criteria / Features of Replication
11
Semi conservative process: 50% of parental DNA is
conserved in each daughter DNA
Symmetric process: After melting of DS parental DNA, each of the two SS
parental DNA serves as template on which new complementary DNA is
synthesized
-Template is copied always from 3' to 5' direction & new strand is
synthesized from 5' to 3' direction
- Needs primer
12. 12
Bidirectional process: From a specific site (ORI),
replication simultaneously proceeds in both direction
- Non selective process: The whole genome is copied, not a selected segment
- Semi discontinuous process: Between two strands, one (leading / forward strand) replicates
continuously uninterrupted whereas the other one (lagging / retrograde strand) replicated
discontinuously with interruption
- Process of high fidelity : Because, DNAP has proof reading (3' to 5' exonuclease) property, it
can recognize & remove any mismatched nucleotide recruited during synthesis of daughter DNA
strand
- No need of post replicational modification
14. Energy of replication
The nucleotides used for replication arrives as nucleoside
tri phosphate
i.e.
the bases are with their own energy source for bonding
14
16. Enzymes that catalyze the synthesis
of DNA molecules from nucleoside
triphosphates (deoxyribonucleotides),
the molecular precursors / building
blocks of DNA.
They usually work in pairs & read the
existing (template) DNA strand to create
2 new strands that match the existing
one (proof reading)
They are essential for DNA replication
They can add free nucleotides only to the 3'
end of the growing / newly forming DNA
strand.
So, they need a starter nucleotide to make a
bond.
(so, they need primer)
DNA Polymerase
17.
18.
19. TYPE FUNCTION
DNAP-α Synthesis of primer
Initiation of DNA synthesis
DNAP-β Excision of primer
DNA repair
DNAP-γ Mitochondrial DNA replication with proof reading
DNAP-δ Synthesis of lagging strand with proof reading
DNAP-ε Synthesis of leading strand with proof reading
DNA repair
20. 20
Origin of Replication
(ORI):
It is the place in DNA double
helix which unwinds first to
initiate replication
It is identified by consensus
sequence rich in AT bp
Replication begins at multiple
ORI in eukaryotes and proceeds
bidirectionally
22. 22
Replicon:
A region of DNA
that replicates from a single ORI
Or
Replicated region of DNA
centering a definite ORI
Each replicon has origin,
terminus and control elements of
replication
23. 23
Replication bubble :
An unwound and open region of a
DNA helix where
DNA replication occurs.
[ Helicase unwinds only a small section
of the DNA at a time in a place called
the ORI ]
Replication Fork :
The two sides of each bubble where it goes from zipped to
unzipped are called replication forks
i.e. 2 R. forks per R. bubble
Structurally, it consists of Helicase, SSBP, Primase, DNAP
24.
25. 25
Topological Crisis:
It is created when melting of DS
DNA applies turning force creating
positive super coiling / positive super
twisting forward to the unmelted
DNA double helix.
Cessation of further DNA separation
occurs due to torsional strain.
Topoisomerase (DNA gyrase)
relieves the torsional strain resulting
from helicase-induced unwinding
26. 26
Primer:
A primer is a short nucleic acid
sequence that provides a starting
point for DNA synthesis.
In living organisms, it may be a
short RNA segment having 10
nucleotides / the preexisting cellular
DNA fragment
Before DNA replication can occur,
primer is synthesized by an enzyme
called primase, which is a type of
RNA polymerase
The synthesis of a primer is necessary
because DNAP can attach new DNA
nucleotides only to an existing strand of
nucleotides. As such, primer serves to
prime and lay a foundation for DNA
synthesis.
i.e. Primer serves as a starter sequence for
DNAP
27. 27
For leading strand: Only one RNA primer is required .
For lagging strand: Its number depends on the number of Okazaki fragments
The primers are removed before DNA replication is complete and the gaps in the
sequence are filled in with DNA by DNA polymerases
28. 28
In the laboratory, scientists can design and synthesize DNA primers
with specific sequences that bind to sequences in a single-stranded DNA
molecule.
These DNA primers are commonly used to perform the polymerase
chain reaction to copy pieces of DNA or for DNA sequencing.
29. 29
Leading Strand & Lagging
Strand:
In replication, both the strands of DNA act as
template to synthesize their corresponding
complementary strands
Unwinding / melting of parent DS DNA provides two
SS parent DNA to act as template
30. 30
Binding of RNA primer with
template follows the basic rule of
anti parallelism
i.e.
5' end and 3' end of template will
be just opposite to the 3' end and
5' end of primer respectively
Another basic rule to follow is :
To synthesize new DNA strand,
primer grows only in 5' to 3'
direction
reading the template in 3' to 5'
direction only
31. As DNAP can add nucleotides only from 5' to 3' direction, synthesis of one strand is
continuous where replication fork moves in 3' to 5' direction.
This is leading strand
Here, Primer binds at the proximal end of replication bubble and daughter DNA strand
grows distally and continuously
32. As DNAP can add nucleotides only from 5' to 3' direction, synthesis of other strand is not
continuous where replication fork moves in 5' to 3' direction.
The synthesis then proceeds in short segments (okazaki fragments) in the 5' to 3' direction
This is lagging strand
Here, primase comes into action repeatedly to make primer that gets attached at the distal
end of replication bubble & then synthesizes complementary DNA fragments proximally
33. Features Leading strand Lagging strand
Replication fork
movement
From 3' to 5' direction From 5' to 3' direction
Binding of primer At proximal end of replication
bubble
At distal end of replication
bubble
Primer attachment Single Repeated
Daughter DNA
synthesis
Continuous & distally from ORI Discontinuous & proximally
towards ORI
34. 34
Okazaki Fragments:
Pieces of replicated DNA produced on
the lagging strand during replication
They are produced due to repeated
primer attachment with its template
strand
i.e.
Starting of synthesis of each okazaki
fragment needs a new RNA primer
DNA ligase is required for joining
okazaki fragments at the end of
replication
36. The process of DNA replication comprises a set of carefully
orchestrated sequence of events to duplicate the entire genetic
content of a cell.
37. Steps Prokaryotic Eukaryotic
Recognition of ORI dna-A protein unknown
Unwinding of DNA double
helix
Helicase (requires ATP) Helicase (requires ATP)
Stabilization of unwound
template strand
Single stranded DNA
binding protein (SSBP)
Single stranded DNA
binding protein (SSBP)
Synthesis of RNA primer Primase Primase
38. Steps Prokaryotic Eukaryotic
Synthesis of DNA:
Leading strand
Lagging strand (okazaki
fragments)
DNAP III
DNAP III
DNAP-ε
DNAP-δ
Removal of RNA primers & its
replacement with DNA
DNAP I DNAP-β
Joining of okazaki fragments DNA Ligase (requires
NAD)
DNA Ligase (requires
ATP)
41. Initiation:
Identification of ORI
Unwinding / melting of parent DS DNA to provide SS DNA
template (role of helicase)
Formation of replication fork
Synthesis of primer
42. Elongation:
Attachment of primer with the template (SS parent DNA)
Synthesis of new / daughter DNA complementary to template through
polymerization of dNTP by DNAP-δ & DNAP-ε.
Solving of topological crisis by topoisomerase
Excision of primer & its replacement by DNAP-β
Sealing of nicks & joining of okazaki fragments by DNA ligase
43. Termination:
Replication fork moves bidirectionally from the ORI until
adjacent replication fork fuse at opposite side when the
replication is completed
47. It ensures the presence of complete complement of DNA to each daughter
cell during cell division, so that daughter cell DNA becomes identical to that
of parent cell
It ensures duplication & transmission of genetic information from one
generation to next
47