This document provides an overview of programmed instruction. It discusses how programmed instruction emerged from experimental research on operant conditioning by B.F. Skinner and Edward Thorndike's law of effect. It describes some key figures in the early development of programmed instruction like Socrates and Pressey and defines programmed instruction according to various experts. The document also outlines 11 characteristics of programmed instruction and 5 principles of programmed learning, including using small steps, active responding, immediate feedback, self-pacing, and student testing. Finally, it discusses different styles of programming like linear and branching formats.

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Programmed Instruction
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2. Introduction
A variety of personalized instructional techniques and
technologies were developed in 1950s. Programmed learning, teaching
machines, cybernetics, personalized system of instruction. Programmed
instruction represents an effective strategy in the teaching – learning
process. It is a highly individualized strategy which has been found to be
quite useful for classroom instruction as well as self – learning or auto
instruction. Programmed Learning or Instruction emerged out of
experimental research on operant conditioning which was formulated by
B.F. Skinner and law of effect which was proposed by E.L. Thorndike.
Programmed learning has a long past. Socrates, the great philosopher
teacher, is said to be one of the earliest programmers. He developed a
programme in geometry which was recorded by him discipline Plato, in
the 'Dialogue'. It is said Socrates guided his followers to knowledge
through questions from 'factto fact' and from 'insight to insight'. The
tutorial System adopted by British universities is considered the next phase
of programmed instruction. In this system there is a continuous exchange
of questions and answers between the tutor and his students. Some direct
relevance to programming is found in Thorndike’s law of effect. The
concept of reinforcement by reward of satisfaction is an important feature
of programmed instruction. Programmed instruction, is an advanced
form, was initiated, is an advanced form, was initiated by Prof. Sydney L.
Pressey, the inventor of a teaching machine. In this device a question was
followed by a number of answers. The machine would provide the next
item only after the correct response key was pressed.

3. Content
Programmed learning involves instruction with carefully specified
goals and skillfully arranged learning experiences, which are self –
instructional and self corrective. Thus programmed instruction is a new
path towards automation and individual learning or instruction.
Smith and Moore (1962) describe“programmed instruction is the
process of arranging the material to the learned into a series of sequential
steps, usually it moves the student from a familiar background into a
complex and news set of concepts, principles and understanding”.Harold.
W. Bernard's view: "programmed learning refers to the arrangement of
instructional material in progressive sequences".
Edgar Dale's view: "programmed instruction in systematic, step by step
self – instructional program aimed to ensure the learning of stated
behavior".
Characteristics of Programmed Learning
1) The content of broken into small easy steps and each step is
presented in several sentences each called a 'Frame'.
2) The frames are arranged sequentially.
3) Most of the frames require that the learner makes some kind of
response – an answer to the question, an activity to demonstrate the
understanding of the material - that is frequent response is elicited
from the students.
4) The student is provided with immediate confirmation of the right
answer that is learner is provided immediate reinforcement. In case

4. he is correct his response is reinforced and if he is wrong, he may
correct himself by receiving the correct answer.
5) Units are arranged in a careful sequence such that is shapes the
behaviour of a learner.
6) It is the interaction between the learner and learning material which
is emphasizedin programmed learning. Here is the learner is active
and is motivated to learn and respond.
7) Programmed Learning provides self – pacing and thus learning may
occur at an individual rate rather than general, depending upon
nature of the learner learning material and learning situation.
8) It calls for the overt responses of the learner which can be readily
observed, measured and effectively controlled.
9) It has provision for continuous evaluation which helps in improving
the student’s performance and quality of programmed learning
material.
10) The content and sequence of all frames are subject to actual tryout
with the pupils and are revised on the data gathered based on the
response of the learner.
11) Goals to be achieved are also evaluated and stated specifically.
12) In programmed learning, the suitability and appropriateness of the
material depends on the learner. If the learner makes mistakes, the
programmed material should berejected.

5. Principles of programmed Learning
A good programmed learning material incorporation good
principles of learning. The basic idea of programmed learning is that most
efficient, pleasant and permanent learning must take place,
The following are the principles
a) Principle of small steps
A programme is made up of a large number of small, easy to take
steps. A student can proceed from knowing very little about a topic to
mastery of the subject by going through a programme.
b) Principle of Active Responding
The principle rests on the assumption that a learner learns better by
being active.Programming provides opportunity for learner to respond
frequently. It not only presents material to the learner but also induces a
sustained activity.
c) Principle of Immediate confirmation
The psychological phenomenon of reinforcement is the basis of this
principle necessity of providing immediateconfirmation is important from
two points of view.
1) The learner will not wildly guess
2) When the learner is not sure of the response he or she needs to
be confirmed of the correctness of the response or provided with the right
response.
d) Principle of self – pacing
Programmed learning is a technique of individualized learning. It is
based on another assumption that learning can take place better if an
individual is allowed to learn at his own pace. The pupil is not forced to

6. move with other members of the class. Some students naturally learn more
rapidly or more slowly than others. In a normal classroom some students
may be left – behind as they are not able to keep pace with the teacher but
here the learner in able to learn at his own pace. This principle controls
individual difference in the process of learning.
d) Principle of student Testing
Continuous evaluation of the learning process helps in maximizing
learning is another assumption on which programmed learning is based.
The student leaves behind a record of his response because he is required
to write a response for each frame on a response sheet. This detailed
record helps in revising the programme and also provided a feedback to
the teacher about the student’s progress.
Styles of Programming
In programmed learning the presentation of the instructional
materials. Or subject matter to the learner is a suitable form is termed as
programming. Some programming styles are
1. Linear of Extrinsic Programming
2. Branching Or Intrinsic Programming
3. Methetics Programming
4. Ruleg/Egrule System of programming.
5. Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI)
6. Learner Controlled Instruction (LCI)
The first three styles that is linear branching and mathetics represent the
actual basic formats.

7. Linear or Extrinsic Programming
Skinnerand his associates are the Originators of the linear type of
programme. This type of programming is directly related with his theory
of Operant Conditioning and in based on the assumption that human
behaviour can be shaped or conditioned gradually, step by step with
suitable reinforcement for each desired response. In this programming
questions are asked directly and the learner is required to think and write
down his answer – thus the answers are referred to as 'constructed
responses'.
In this type of programme, every learner start from the initial frame
and ends at the terminal frame following the same sequence. Every student
must go through each and every frame in a straight line fashion – hence it
is called a linear programme. But each student has the liberty to complete
the programme at his own pace and ability.
Formed of Linear Programming
1. Information
2. Question
Frame # 1 3. Response
4. Cue (optional)
cue (
1.correct answer to question in frame
1(feedback, Reinforcement)
Frame # 2 2.Stimuli
3.Question
4.Response
5.Cue (Optional)
1.Correct answer to question in Frame2
Frame #3 2.Information
3. Question
4. Response
5. Cue Optional

8. Subject matter is broken down into very small steps and each step is
presented in proper sequence. The active responses of the learner are
immediately reinforced in the succeeding frame.
Graphical Representation of Linear frame.
Path of Learning
Principles of Linear Programming
1. Principles of small steps.
2. Principle of immediate confirmation.
3. Principle of advice responding.
4. Principle of self-pacing.
5. Principle of student testing.
Important features of linear programming
1. Linear: Every learner follows the same path. The learner starts from
the initial frame and goes to terminal frame in the series of short
steps following the same sequence.
2. Small Steps: Programme is composed of small steps which contain a
single idea ,example or rule.
3. Controlled Response : The responses and order are decided by the
programmer and in each step only one response is required.
Frame 1
fr
Frame 2
fr
Frame 3
fr
Frame n
fr
Entry Behaviour Terminal Behaviour

9. 4. Response is Emphasised: Here importance is given to the response
and the learner is forced to respond in each frame.
5. Provision of cues and prompts : Provision for cues or prompts to
minimise error are made especially in the beginning frames .
6. Feedback is quick: The learner is able to compare his response with
the programmers answer immediately. Hence it acts as a motivating
factor.
7. Self pace: Each Learner works at his or her own speed and is
discouraged from cheating.
8. Active Response: The responses are to be given after a critical
observation and comprehension of the frame and learner can
proceed further only after responding. Hence no learner can be a
silent spectator .
Limitation of Linear programming
1. Lack of motivation: The Linear, fixed nature of learning tends to
make it dull, uninspiring, and uninteresting.
2. Time Consumption: Since the steps are small and many it consumes
a lot of time to cover the subject matter.
3. Freedom of choice is curtailed: Since the responses are controlled
and learner has to answer in a few words, the creativity of the
learner is not brought out.
4. Guessing: The blank type of responses and cues generally help the
learner to guess the answer.
5. Costly: The large number of steps makes the preparation and
presentation costly as it requires lots of paper.

10. 6. Applicability: It can be used in few areas where responses are
measurable such as maths and science.
7. Scope for flexibility unless: The same programme may not be
optimally effective for all learners. Learners differ both in previous
experience and latent inherent abilities. Hence, the same sequence
may at times prove counterproductive.
8. Learner Honesty cannot be Assumed at all Times: Since answers are
available in the next frame we cannot expect all students to be honest
at all times. We also cannot be sure that students don't skip frames.
9. Variety is not Ensured: Learners do not search out concepts and
think of various possibilities. Judgment and integration are not
encouraged.
10.Rigid Following: Learners are not allowed to diversify and all are
expected to follow a rigid line prescribed by programme.
Branched Programming
Branching Programme was developed by Norman. A .Crowder,
hence it is also known as Crowderian Model. Crowder defines this style of
programming as: "It is a programme which adapts to the needs of the
students without the medium of extrinsic devices as a computer. It is
called intrinsic because the learner within himself makes the decision, to
adapt the instruction to his or her needs".
In comparison to Linear programming the frame size andamount of
information given is more and is followed by multiple choice type of
question. Out of the choices, only one answer is correct. If the learner
chooses the correct answer he is informed of the correctness of the answer
and is motivated to proceed to the next frame along the main path of
learning of the programme .If the answer is wrong the learner is told why

11. he or she is wrong and he or she either returns to the main line or is routed
back to the original frame to reread along a remedial frame till he chooses
the right answer.
Principles of Branching Programming
1. Principles of Exposition: This principle is based on the fact that the
learner should perceive globally the matter to which he is exposed.
Hence the whole concept is presented to the learner in paragraphs or
a page on the home page.
2. Principle of Diagnosis: This principle refers to the need to identify
the weakness of the learner. A multiple choice format is used to
diagnose the shortcomings of the learner and the extent to which he
could learn the concept.
3. Principle of Remediation: The remedial instruction is provided on
the wrong page. On the basis of diagnosis, remediation is provided.
Features of Branching Programme
1. The instructional material is divided into frames. In each frame
information running into one or two paragraphs or even a page is
provided.
2. After going through the frame, the learner has to respond to a
multiple choice question. He has to discriminate among the choices
provided and choose a correct response.
3. The learner moves forward if he answers correctly but is diverted
(branched) to remedial frames if he chooses the wrong answer.
4. This cycle goes on till the learner passes through the entire material
at his own pace.

12. 5. Branching programme can be produced in a teaching machine or in
a book form. The book will be in the form of a scrambled text as the
matter does not follow a normal sequence.
Types of Branching Programme
a. Backward Branching
The learner goes from first frame to second frame only if he chooses
the correct response. If he makes an error, he is routed through a remedial
frame where he is given some more help in understanding the concept
and arriving at the correct solution. He is led back to the original frame.
He reads again answer correctly in light of the remedial material received
earlier. So the learner goes through the same frame till he arrives at the
correct answer. Backward branching is represented as.
b. Forward Branching
In this type of programming , the learner is always going forward to
a new page irrespective of his choosing the right or wrong answer. When
he makes a wrong choice, he is directed to a remedial frame where his
mistake is explained.
Main
Frame I
Remedial
Frame
Remedial
Frame
2 3

13. At times the learner is asked another question and then after he
gives the correct answer the learner proceeds to a new page. This type of
programming can be represented
1
2 3
Remedial Frame
Limitations of a Branching Programme
1. The multiple choice type of questions may encourage guessing. It is
probable that the learner can find the correct answer by the process
of elimination or guessing rather than by understanding of subject
matter.
2. Branching Programme cannot cater to the needs of all individuals
since it is not possible to provide infinite branching.
3. Cost of branching programming in exhorbitant and it would be very
difficult to reprogramme and modify programmes periodically.
4. This style of programming is suitable only for older children (high
school) since younger children cannot understand the mechanism.
N
RF
RF

14. Assumptions of Branching Program
1. Needs of the learner
2. Wholeness of the content
3. Meaningful units
4. Analysis of the task
5. New Material
6. No hindrance by errors
7. Remediation
8. Multiple choice items
9. Sufficient freedom
10.Discrimination
Principles of Branching programme
1. Principle of exposition
2. Principle of diagnosis
3. Principle of remediation
Advantages and Application of programmed Instruction
1. Programmed instruction provides opportunities for the use of self –
instructional devices which aid students in task of self-learning.
2. Programming leads to individualization of process of teaching
learning.
3. Programming help in revolutionizing, developing and providing
techniques of mass education and self-education.
4. Programming assists teachers to cater to individual differences since
it basically helps the learner to pace his learning.

15. 5. The students are motivated and hence problems of indiscipline and
problems due to group setting are minimised.
6. Programming makes instruction effective since it is based on sound
psychological principles.
7. Programmed instruction helps in the development of integrative
judgment and creative learning. The power of discrimination and
making immediate and effective responses is developed through
such instruction.
8. Programmed instruction material helps teachers to devote more time
for creative work since they can be fed from jobs like drill and
practice routines.
9. A programme is not a human being and hence can be used atany
time of the day. Hence these materials can be used in the field of
non-formal education and distance education.
10.Each programme has to be validated in this process it may be
rewritten and revised a number of times .If proper learning donot
result the programme is revised and the learner is not blamed. This
positive attitude is not observed in classroom teaching where there is
a tendency to blame the students than teacher when students fails to
learn.
Comparison between Linear programming and Branching programming
Aspect under
comparison
Linear Programming Branching
Programming
1. propagator B.F. Skinner . Norman. A. Crowder.
2.
Background
Psychology laboratory
experiments learning
theories.
Industrial efficiency
theories human
training techniques.
3.
Theories based
Operant conditioning – based
on response centered
Configuration
theories – based on

16. approach learning that is
problem solving
approach – stimulus
centered approach
4.
Principles
Five fundamental principles -
small steps, active
responding, immediate
confirmation, self-pacing and
student testing
Three principles -
Exposition, diagnosis
and Remediation.
5.Assumption Its assumptions are
a) Students in better if
content is presented in
small units.
b) Student’s response
should be immediately
reinforced for learning.
c) Student’s errors hinder
learning.
d) Student learns better if
he gets the freedom to
learn.
Its assumptions are
a) Students learn
better if he is
exposed to
whole content.
b) Student’s error
helps in
diagnosis and
does not
necessarily hide
learning.
c) Students learn
better if
remediation is
provided
simultaneously
along with the
error
committed.
6.Frame Size Small steps – 15-25 words in 1
or 2 sentences.
Large steps – one or
two paragraphs or
even one page.
7. Number of
steps.
Large Small
8. Frame
Structure.
Stimulus – Response –
Reinforcement
Stimulus – Response –
Remedy –
Reinforcement
9. Types of
Frame.
Four types – Introductory,
Teaching, Practice and
Testing frames.
Two types – Home
page – Teaching and
Diagnosis. wrong
page – Remediation is
given.
10.Response. Constructed Response – Multiple choice –

17. controlled by programmer -
Fill up the blanks type.
choosing – controlled
by learner.
11.Purpose of
Response.
Fixing of learning Measurement or
Diagnosis of learning
12.Reinforcement
.
Confirmation of correctness
of response – wrong response
is ignored.
Correct response is
confirmed and
approved and wrong
response is remedied.
13.Presentation.
a)Type of Text
b)Machine
Usual textbook style - pages
are in normal sequence
Teaching machine Cheap
model
Scrambled book – The
sequence of pages is
not followed.
Complex – computer
– costly type .
14.
Error Rate
15.Utility and
appropriateness.
Less about 5%
1) Lower class.
2) Knowledge and
understanding
objectives.
3) More useful in
concept formation.
4) Normal and less
intelligent pupils.
20% in general
1) Higher classes.
2) Higher order
teaching,Objecti
ves – analysis,
problem
solving etc
3) More useful in
concept
comparison
4) Talented and
creative pupils
In programmed Instruction students have
compulsorily respond to move forward and feedbacks given to him
immediately. In traditional teaching all students need not respond andall
teachers donotpractice continuous evaluation.In programmed Instruction.
care is taken to see thatstudents interest is sustained bypraise and
immediatefeedback. The programmed style itself has its roots
inPsychological Theories. The subject matter is broken into small
framesand presented keeping in mind principles like single to complexin
programmed Instruction. A Programme is developed empirically through
a series of tryouts . Programmes are repeatedly refined with effective

18. frames being retained and ineffective ones discarded or modified based
on Evaluation.

19. Conclusion
Programmed learning represents one of the effective innovations in
teaching learning process. Our classroom are over-crowded and
providing individual attention is an impossible task for single Teacher..
Inorder to cater to individual differences, books in programmed learning
need to be written and they serve the purpose of individualization.
Besides its use for instructional process, programmed learning can be
used as a feedback device for the modification of teacher behavior and
improving his teaching efficiency. It is different from traditional teaching
in case of valuation, Organization of subject, Psychological basis,
Motivation, Feedback and Group versus Individual Instruction.

20. Reference
1. Dr. Vanaja. M, 'Educational Technology', Neelkamal Publications,
First edition 2004, New Delhi
2. Dr. P.S. Chandra Kumar, Dr. A. Joycilin Shermila ' Pedagogy of
Teaching English, AV Parvathy Publications, 2012
3. www. Wikipedia.com

21. NEW COMER
As One Wonder of God, I myself
a lifeblood in a safety mirage.
Miracle handsof divine nourishes,
fostered me, day after day.
No thought, no expression and nothing
Guideto the land of the mortals.
One dayI began to cleave the
Socket and enter the world of
knowledge, unknowinglyand unaware,
Began to recreate myself with Nature
Without loosing pleasure, ecstasies
Bliss on the land of New
Without understanding myrole
Stretches my arms and fingers
And standson the lap of the
Mother Earth, the Tree.
Sapna. S
Optional: English