The document discusses programmed learning, a pedagogical approach stemming from B.F. Skinner's operant conditioning research, which allows individualized instruction through structured materials known as frames. It outlines principles of programmed learning, including small steps, active responding, immediate feedback, self-pacing, and student testing, and differentiates between linear and branching programming styles. Advantages of programmed learning include improved education quality and tailored learning experiences, while limitations include potential lack of motivation and high costs, particularly in branching programming.

1. Programmed Learning
By
Dr. I. Uma Maheswari
iuma_maheswari@yahoo.co.in

2. Origin of programmed
learning:
Programmed learning is the
outcome of B.F. Skinner’s
experimental studies on animals.
It was a great boon to the
pedagogies who were thinking of
methods to individualist
instruction.

3. This itself was a new way of
thinking, the concept being each
individual can develop or learn at
his capacity level, unlike in the
traditional class-rooms.
Programmed instruction has
been one of the most popular and
effective innovations in classroom
teaching-learning process in the
sixties in the educationally
advanced countries of the world.

4. Following this there had been a
series of research work.
In our country some universities
and centers of higher education
are doing work in the realm of
developing self-learning materials
for different subjects at different
levels of instruction.

5. Programmed learning:
Programmed Learning techniques
emerged out of the experimental
researches on operant
conditioning.
The basic principle of operant
conditioning is that the principle
of reinforcement brings about
behavioural changes in successive
approximation to the desired goal.

6. A reinforcer in operant
conditioning is any stimulus of
event which, when produced by a
response, makes that response
more likely to occur in the future.
Reinforcers are somewhat like
‘rewards’ in everyday speech.
Examples for reinforcers could be
food for a hungry animal, praise
for a child or anything similar to
it.

7. Skinner had shown that the same
principle could be used in human
learning too! The result is
programmed Instruction.
Here the materials to be learned is
broken up into small, easy steps.
These are known as ‘frames’.

8. Since each frame is made easy, this
minimizes the frustration that can
lower motivation result in a dislike for
learning.
Also programmed learning allows
learners to proceed at their own place
and to receive immediate knowledge
about the correctness of the responses.
Hence this method is very effective in
learning facts, rules, formulate etc.

9. Programmed Instruction could be
defined as a “Process of arranging
material to be learned in a series of
small steps designed to lead a
learner through self instruction
from what he knows to the
unknown of new and more
complex knowledge and
principles”.

10. Principles of programmed learning
Programmed learning makes use of
five important principles. They are as
follows.
1. Principle of small steps:
The subject matter is thoroughly
analyzed and divided into meaningful
segments of information.
One segment of information is
presented at a time to the learner.
This piece of information is called a
‘frame’.

11. 2. Principle of active responding:
As the learner reads the frame, he
is prompted to give an active
response, either by writing an
answer or by carrying out some-
action.

12. 3. Principles of immediate
confirmation of feedback:
The third principle of programming is
immediate confirmation of results.
This knowledge of results helps the
learner to get the reinforcement.
The learner has to make responses in
each frame, and then he can compare
his response, with that of the
programmer.

13. If the learner’s response is correct
he is confirmed and than he can
go to the next step.
If the response is wrong he has to
read the frame again till he could
give the correct response.

14. Principle of self-pacing:
It is a very important principle of
programming.
Each individual can progress at
his own level.
To put it in other words, a fast
learner can proceed from one
frame to another fast.

15. At the same time a slow learner is
not compelled to proceed with the
fast learner and he can go
through the frames slowly.
Thus it helps the individual to
learn at his own ability level and
satisfies the principle of self-
pacing.

16. Principle of Student Testing:
The teacher regularly assess the
students.
He can, at the same time find out
the weakness of his programme
and can modify it.
The student also gets the
opportunity to evaluate his own
performance.

17. Types of programming:
1. Linear programming.
2. Branching programming

18. (i)(a) Learner programming or
Extrinsic Programming:
This is based on the ideas put
forth by B.F.Skinner.
In a linear programme, the
subject matter is divided into
quite small pieces of knowledge
known as frames.

19. Each learner has to go through all
the frames, in the same sequence
along a single path or line.
Response of the first frame is
immediately confirmed before he
goes to the second frame.
The correct response of the
previous frame appears alongside
the forthcoming frame.

20. In this type of programme the
chances of giving correct
responses is high.
Diagrammatic representation of linear
programming
1 2 3 4 5 6 7

21. In linear programming a frame will
have the following three aspects.
(i) Stimulus: There is stimulus which
the learner needs and is motivated to
respond.
(ii) Response: After reading the frame
the learner responds, this response is
the second component of a frame.
(iii) Reinforcement: The learner
compares his response with the
response of the programmer and thus
gets reinforcement.

22. When a frame is prepared the
language used should be simple
and the frame should provide
motivation to the learner.
Also no ambiguous statement
should be present in a frame.
With all these important facts in
mind only the programme should
start-writing the frames of a
programme.

23. Simple frame:
Frame 1: The device through which
the input is given to the system is
called input device. ----------------
device is used for inputting the
information. (input)

24. Frame 2: The output is got with
the help of output devices and the
devices through which the
information is got from the system
is called --------------- device.
(output)
Frame 3: Floppy is an -------------
device. (input/output)
Frame 4: Monitor is an ------------
device. (output)

25. (i)(b) Feature of Linear
programming:
All the principles of operant
conditioning are incorporated in
the linear style of programming.
The distinctive features of linear
programming can be summarized
as follows.

26. 1. Linear arrangement:
The learners advance in a single
series of short steps which are
designed to ensure a high rate of
correct response to the frame.
All the learners have to pase
through the same fixed sequence
of frames determined by the
programmer, irrespective of their
knowledge in the subject.

27. 2. Responses are controlled:
In a linear style of programming
the programmer has control over
the responses.
He fixes the responses and their
order.
The learner has no choice of his
own to respond.

28. 3. Response is emphasized:
In a linear programme the
emphasis is on the response.
The learner must respond to each
and every frame for learning to
occur.

29. 4. Immediate feedback:
The linear programme is designed
in such a way that as soon as the
learner makes a response he can
compare his response with
response of the programmer.
This will be provided either at the
left hand side or at the foot of the
frame.

30. 5. Prompting:
A prompting is an additional
stimulus in the frame which helps
the learner to respond correctly.
In the beginning of the
programme prompts, hints and
cues are introduced to avoid
unnecessary wastage of time to
find out the correct response.

31. 6. Active Participation:
Linear programmes involves
active participation on the part of
the learner.

32. 7. Self - Pacing:
Each learner proceeds at his own
speed through the programme
without being compelled to work
with the speed of other members
of the class.

33. 8. Linear programme may be used
from this first grade.
9. Learner can skip certain form
provided that he can respond correctly
to a test item given at a particular
frame.
Test item skip to frame No.6
1 2 3 4 5 6 7

34. 10. The linear programming style
is best suited in subject areas
where facts and information’s can
be properly sequenced.

35. (i)(c) Limitations of Linear style
of programming:
1. Lack of motivation:
Dullness and monotony can
enter into learning since it takes
more time to teach simple topics
and materials.
Gifted children may feel that it
lacks challenge and interest.

36. 2.Freedom of choice is curtailed:
The learner has no choice of his
own to respond and hence the
creative imagination and
judgmental ability of the learner
are inhibited.

37. (1) The linear programmes the
learner finds out the clue as to
what is to be filled in the blank
space.
(2) The linear style of
programming can be used only in
areas where the subject matter
can be properly sequenced such
as Science, Mathematics,
Vocabulary development etc.

38. (3) Sidney L. Pressley has critised
the linear style of programming on the
grounds that learning in actual life
situation is not always serial as is the
case with the linear programming and
that the creative ability is inhibited
(4) When the material is presented
in the bookform the learners are
expected to be honest, otherwise there
is possibility of copying, which will
affect learning itself.

39. (ii)(a) Branching or Intrinsic
style of programming:
This style of programming owes
credit to Norman A Crowder, and
is called Crowderian Style.
Branching or Intrinsic type of
programming has been defined as
“a programme which adopts to the
need of the students without the
medium of extrinsic device such
as computer”.

40. This style of programming is
called intrinsic because the
learner within himself makes the
decision to adopt the instruction
to his needs according to his
background of the subject.
The principle underlying this style
of programming is that different
students need different
instructional materials and that
learning is communication.

41. He favours larger areas of material at a
time to the learner.
His technique of communication is quite
different from skinner’s who believes in
breaking the subject matter into stimulus
response chains.
In branching, the student’s choice
determines what material he will see
next.
The learner controls the exact sequence
that he wants to follow among the
available branches in the programme.

42. (b) Features of Branching styles:
In branching programme a frame
is larger and more information is
presented.
A step may consist of 2 to 3
paragraph or even a full page.
The programmer can show his
style of writing.

43. Multiple choice questions are
asked.
If the learner’s response is
correct, he is confirmed, if not he
is taken to the frame which tells
him why he is wrong.
Crowder views that teaching is
communication and hence he
concentrates his attention upon
the improvement of
communication.

44. 1. Learner has freedom to choose
his own path of action according
to the background of the subject
matter.
2. Students are more alert and
concentration is high.
3. Crowder believes that making
errors is basic to learning. So
detection and correction of
errors is emphasized.

45. 4. The critical feature of branching model
is the fact that the material presented
to each student is continuously
controlled by the learner’s performance
is answering questions.
5. In branching programme, when the
materials is presented in the form of a
book, it is called a scrambled text-
book.
6. It is very useful in concept learning or
where the material is given in large
steps.

46. (c) Limitations:
1. There is the possibility of
guessing the correct response
without understanding the
subject matter.
2. Cost of preparation is very high.
3. Infinite branching is not possible
and hence it cannot meet the
need of all individuals.

47. 4. Programmes are prepared by the
programmer in his own
imagination and it is he who
decides the diagnostic question
and content.
5. Branching programme could be
used only from the 6th grade or so
when the learners have secured a
sufficient amount of knowledge.

48. 6. Since the programme is large
questions may not be asked from
all the areas and there is a
possibility of leaving out certain
content areas.
7. The programme needs revision
after every 2 years.

49. 1.Developing a programmed
learning material:
Obviously when a PLM has to be
developed the programmer has to
adopt the following three stages.
(i) Preparation
(ii) Writing the programme
Evaluation.

50. (i)Preparation:
At this stage the programmer has to
adhere to the following steps.
(a) Selection of content.
(b) Writing assumptions about the
learner.

51. (c) Writing objectives in
behavioural terms.
(d) Defining the pre-requisite
knowledge and skills in
behavioural terms.
(e) Preparation of the criterion test.
(f) Developing specific outlines of
content to be programmed.

52. (ii) Writing the programme:
The subject matter is split into
stimulus – response chains.
Whenever the programmer feels that
the learners is in need of a prompt is
given.
A prompt in a frame can be defined as
“an additional stimulus in the frame
which raises the probability of correct
responding”.

53. (iii) Evaluation:
In the 3rd stage, the programmer
tests his material on students to
evaluate is efficiency and
effectiveness. After editing the
programme the programmer
validates it in three phase namely
(a) individual try out, (b) small
groups tryout and (c) Field tryout.

54. (a) Individual tryout:
One representative student for whom
the programme is written is tested at a
time.
Individual tryout gives an opportunity
to the programmers to study the
reactions of the learner immediately
after the completion of the frame.
This helps him to bring about needed
modifications in the frame.

55. (b) Small Group tryout:
After making necessary
modifications and weeding out the
inadequacies in the frames, the
programme is tried out on a small
group of 5 to 10 students for
whom the programme is written.
The programmer discuss
difficulties of the programme with
the student based on which
modifications are made in the
programme.

56. (c) Field Tryout:
Here the programme is tested in actual
class room situation.
The programme complete in all
respects, in administrated to a
representative group of 50 or more
students of an entire class.
The specific areas where improvement
is needed is got from the students
based on which the programme is
again modified. Now the programme is
ready for use.

57. Advantages of using programmed
learning techniques:
1. There are certain intellectual abilities
and some motor skills which are
taught by frequent drill work and
memorizing. In such areas they
could be taught efficiently by
programmed learning.
2. It gives ample scope for teaching
concepts in a logical manner and
inspires students to think creatively.

58. 3. Good teachers are freed from the
routine class-room teaching and they
can spend their time in a more
creative way.
4. It improves the quality of education.
5. Many emotional and social problems
could be eliminated and problem of
discipline have been automatically
solved by the use of this.

59. 6. It helps to diagnose the
problems of the individual
learner.
7. Programmed learning provides
an opportunity for the learner to
take up learning as an
interesting game.

60. Differences between linear and Branching
style of Programming
Linear Programme
(Extrinsic)
Branching Programme (Intrinsic)
1. All the six psychological principles are
to be followed strictly.
2. Frames are written as bits of
information in a simple language.
3. Frames are arranged in a straight line
sequence.
4. Response is structured.
5. Reinforcement immediately given.
6. Subjects matter is given as limited
facts.
7. It is cheap.
8. Error rate is 5%.
9. It can be used from elementary class.
Three principles namely small steps,
Immediate confirmation and Active
responding are not mandatory.
Frames are written as 3 or 4 sentences or a
even paragraph.
Frames are scrambled.
Response is Multiple choice.
Not necessary ultimate correctness of
response.
It is given as broad concepts.
It is costly.
Error rate is 2%.
Can be used better only after VIII
Standard.