This document discusses various natural sweetening agents. It begins by explaining that sugar is the most widely used natural sweetening agent due to its quick and short-lived sweet taste. It then categorizes sweeteners as nutritive (such as sugar alcohols) or non-nutritive (such as artificial sweeteners). The document provides details on numerous natural sweeteners including their source, properties, uses, and methods of extraction. It focuses on sweeteners derived from plants such as stevia, licorice, citrus fruits, and others.
Benzoin is a balsamic resin obtained from incisions made on several species of Styrax trees native to Southeast Asia. There are two main types - Sumatra benzoin from Styrax benzoin and Siam benzoin from Styrax tonkinesis. Sumatra benzoin contains a higher amount of benzoic and cinnamic acids which give it an aromatic odor. Siam benzoin contains mainly coniferyl benzoate and has a vanilla-like odor. Both types are used as expectorants and antiseptics in preparations like compound tincture of benzoin. They are also used industrially to add fragrance to products.
Gentian is a plant whose dried rhizome and roots are used as a bitter tonic. It contains several bitter glycosides such as gentiopicrin, which has an intensely bitter taste and is used to stimulate digestion. Gentian grows in central and southern Europe and Asia, and its rhizomes are harvested in autumn after 2-5 years of growth. Microscopically, transverse sections of gentian rhizome show a porous wood surrounded by parenchyma cells containing oil globules and calcium oxalate needles. Gentian is used as a stomachic to treat indigestion and other gastrointestinal issues.
Caffeine is a central nervous system stimulant found naturally in coffee beans, tea leaves, and cocoa beans. It is chemically classified as a methylxanthine and acts as an antagonist of adenosine receptors in the brain. By blocking adenosine receptors, caffeine prevents the slowing of neuronal activity and can increase brain activity levels. It has been used for centuries as a psychotropic drug and CNS stimulant to promote wakefulness, but is now commonly consumed worldwide in coffee, tea, soft drinks, and energy drinks for its energizing effects.
Myrrh is an oleo-gum-resin obtained from the stem and branches of Commiphora molmol trees found in northeast Africa and southern Arabia. The trees are small, around 3 meters high, and contain schizogenous ducts and lysigenous cavities filled with a yellowish granular liquid. After making incisions in the bark, the oleo-gum resin exudes and hardens into reddish-brown tears ranging from 1.5-3 cm in diameter with an aromatic, bitter, and acrid taste and odor. Myrrh contains volatile oil, resin, gum, and bitter principles and is used in perfumes, incense, and as an antiseptic and stimulant
This document provides information about various enzymes. It begins with an introduction to enzymes, noting that they are proteins that act as catalysts and play a vital role in cellular functions and organism activities. It then discusses the properties, chemical nature, and classifications of enzymes. Specific enzymes discussed in more detail include diastase, pepsin, and trypsin. Their sources, preparations, descriptions, uses, and identification tests are outlined.
Unit II Introduction to secondary metabolite
Phenylpropanoids and Flavonoids: Lignans, Tea, Ruta
For video lecture join to youtube channel snehal chakorkar
This document summarizes information about black pepper (Piper nigrum), including its biological source, chemical constituents, uses, marketed preparations, and references. Black pepper is the dried unripe fruit of a climbing vine that contains piperine and volatile oils. It is used as an aromatic, stimulant, and carminative and increases gastric juice and bioavailability of drugs. Marketed preparations containing black pepper extracts are used as antioxidants, anti-inflammatories, and dietary supplements.
This document provides information on the extraction and identification of several phytoconstituents including curcumin, artemisinin, atropine, citral, menthol, caffeine, and reserpine. For each constituent, it describes the biological source, properties, extraction method from the source, and thin layer chromatography conditions and results for identification, including mobile phase, detecting agent, and Rf value.
Benzoin is a balsamic resin obtained from incisions made on several species of Styrax trees native to Southeast Asia. There are two main types - Sumatra benzoin from Styrax benzoin and Siam benzoin from Styrax tonkinesis. Sumatra benzoin contains a higher amount of benzoic and cinnamic acids which give it an aromatic odor. Siam benzoin contains mainly coniferyl benzoate and has a vanilla-like odor. Both types are used as expectorants and antiseptics in preparations like compound tincture of benzoin. They are also used industrially to add fragrance to products.
Gentian is a plant whose dried rhizome and roots are used as a bitter tonic. It contains several bitter glycosides such as gentiopicrin, which has an intensely bitter taste and is used to stimulate digestion. Gentian grows in central and southern Europe and Asia, and its rhizomes are harvested in autumn after 2-5 years of growth. Microscopically, transverse sections of gentian rhizome show a porous wood surrounded by parenchyma cells containing oil globules and calcium oxalate needles. Gentian is used as a stomachic to treat indigestion and other gastrointestinal issues.
Caffeine is a central nervous system stimulant found naturally in coffee beans, tea leaves, and cocoa beans. It is chemically classified as a methylxanthine and acts as an antagonist of adenosine receptors in the brain. By blocking adenosine receptors, caffeine prevents the slowing of neuronal activity and can increase brain activity levels. It has been used for centuries as a psychotropic drug and CNS stimulant to promote wakefulness, but is now commonly consumed worldwide in coffee, tea, soft drinks, and energy drinks for its energizing effects.
Myrrh is an oleo-gum-resin obtained from the stem and branches of Commiphora molmol trees found in northeast Africa and southern Arabia. The trees are small, around 3 meters high, and contain schizogenous ducts and lysigenous cavities filled with a yellowish granular liquid. After making incisions in the bark, the oleo-gum resin exudes and hardens into reddish-brown tears ranging from 1.5-3 cm in diameter with an aromatic, bitter, and acrid taste and odor. Myrrh contains volatile oil, resin, gum, and bitter principles and is used in perfumes, incense, and as an antiseptic and stimulant
This document provides information about various enzymes. It begins with an introduction to enzymes, noting that they are proteins that act as catalysts and play a vital role in cellular functions and organism activities. It then discusses the properties, chemical nature, and classifications of enzymes. Specific enzymes discussed in more detail include diastase, pepsin, and trypsin. Their sources, preparations, descriptions, uses, and identification tests are outlined.
Unit II Introduction to secondary metabolite
Phenylpropanoids and Flavonoids: Lignans, Tea, Ruta
For video lecture join to youtube channel snehal chakorkar
This document summarizes information about black pepper (Piper nigrum), including its biological source, chemical constituents, uses, marketed preparations, and references. Black pepper is the dried unripe fruit of a climbing vine that contains piperine and volatile oils. It is used as an aromatic, stimulant, and carminative and increases gastric juice and bioavailability of drugs. Marketed preparations containing black pepper extracts are used as antioxidants, anti-inflammatories, and dietary supplements.
This document provides information on the extraction and identification of several phytoconstituents including curcumin, artemisinin, atropine, citral, menthol, caffeine, and reserpine. For each constituent, it describes the biological source, properties, extraction method from the source, and thin layer chromatography conditions and results for identification, including mobile phase, detecting agent, and Rf value.
Volatile oils can be extracted through three main methods: distillation, solvent extraction, and mechanical expression. Distillation involves boiling or steaming plant material to separate the oils, while solvent extraction soaks plants in solvents like alcohol. Mechanical expression ruptures oil cells without heat, as used for citrus peels.
This document discusses several plant sweeteners including liquorice, honey, stevia, date palm, and sugar cane. Liquorice root contains glycyrrhizin which is 50 times sweeter than sugar. Honey is a sugar secretion from bees containing glucose, fructose, and sucrose. Stevia is extracted from Stevia rebaudiana leaves and contains rebaudioside A, which is 300 times sweeter than sugar. Dates are the sweet edible fruits of the date palm tree Phoenix dactylifera. Sugar cane consists of stems from Saccharum officinarum that vary in color and can reach 5 meters in height.
Biological source method of preparation ,identification test uses of enzymesSUSHILBHOYAR2
This document provides information about 5 enzymes - diastase, papain, pepsin, trypsin, and pancreatin. It discusses the biological sources, methods of preparation, descriptions, identification tests, and uses of each enzyme. The key points covered are:
- Diastase is obtained from rat pancreas or fungi and is used as a digestant and to convert starch to sugars.
- Papain comes from papaya latex and is used as a meat tenderizer and anti-inflammatory.
- Pepsin is derived from pig stomach and used to treat gastric issues and in protein analysis.
- Trypsin is from ox pancreas and given to aid digestion or to remove dead tissue
Turmeric is obtained from the dried rhizomes of the plant Curcuma longa. It contains the yellow chemical curcumin, which makes up 50-60% of turmeric. Curcumin can be isolated from turmeric powder through extraction with alcohol or hexane followed by acetone. Curcumin is identified through chemical tests where it produces a crimson color with sulfuric acid or a reddish brown color with boric acid that turns greenish blue with alkali. Curcumin content can be analyzed using methods like HPLC, where it shows peaks at specific retention times when separated using a Nucleosil NH2 column with ethanol mobile phase and UV detection at 254nm.
Colophony, also known as rosin, is obtained from the distillation residue of pine resin from species of pine trees. It is produced in North America, Northern Europe, Pakistan, and India. Colophony is a pale yellow to brown solid that is insoluble in water but soluble in alcohol, chloroform, ether, and acetic acid. Its major constituent is abietic acid, it has a melting point between 75-85°C, and can be identified through chemical tests involving acetic anhydride and sulfuric acid or copper acetate. Colophony has pharmaceutical uses as a diuretic and in ointments and plasters, and industrial uses in varnishes, soaps,
Volatile oils, also known as essential oils, are complex mixtures of organic compounds extracted from plants. They are typically obtained through hydrodistillation, solvent extraction, expression or other specialized techniques. Volatile oils have several important applications including use in perfumes, cosmetics, flavors, and traditional medicine due to their aromatic properties and biological activities. The specific extraction method used depends on the plant material and desired oil properties.
Describes in detail the complete biological source and synonyms of the plant Cinnamon. Gives important macroscopic characters and microscopic characters as seen in transverse and the lateral sections. Also gives important chemical constituents of the plant, its uses, difference between two species of Cinnamon: Cassia cinnamon and Ceylon cinnamon and some marketed pharmaceutical preparations of Ceylon cinnamon.
Volatile oils, also known as essential oils, are aromatic oily liquids found in many plants. They are highly volatile and evaporate easily at room temperature. Volatile oils are composed of hydrocarbons and oxidized hydrocarbons derived from terpenes. They are found stored in secretory cells, cavities, or channels located in different parts of plants. Volatile oils have various therapeutic uses and are also used in perfumes, cosmetics, and flavorings due to their strong aromas. They are extracted from plants using various techniques including water and steam distillation, solvent extraction, and enfleurage.
1. Glycosides are organic compounds found in plants and animals that contain a sugar (glycone) and non-sugar (aglycone or genin) portion. Upon hydrolysis, the sugar and non-sugar portions separate.
2. There are several types of glycosides based on the atom involved in the glycosidic linkage between the glycone and aglycone, including O-, C-, S-, and N-glycosides.
3. Two common cardiac glycoside drugs that contain glycosides are Digitalis and Aloe. Digitalis contains compounds like digitoxin and gitoxin that have cardiac effects. Aloe contains compounds like aloin that have laxative effects.
Lignans are phenylpropanoid dimers found widely in plants. Podophyllum lignans from Podophyllum species have anticancer and antiviral properties. Their structure contains five rings. Phenylpropane units in lignans are derived from the phenylpropanoid pathway. Secoisolariciresinol diglucoside is a prominent lignan in flaxseed that has antioxidant and antiplatelet effects. Quassinoids from Quassia species have insecticidal, antibacterial, and antitumor properties. Their basic structure contains a beta-carbolinium ion.
Tannins are complex organic polyphenolic compounds found in many plants. There are two main types: hydrolysable tannins which produce gallic acid or ellagic acid when hydrolyzed, and condensed tannins which are resistant to hydrolysis. Catechu and Pterocarpus are sources of tannins. Catechu comes from Uncaria gambier and contains catechin, while Pterocarpus comes from the stem bark of Pterocarpus marsupium and contains kinotannic acid. Tannins have medicinal properties such as astringency and ability to stop bleeding.
Castor oil is obtained from the seeds of the castor oil plant. The main country producers are Brazil, India, and other tropical and subtropical countries. Castor oil contains triglycerides of ricinoleic acid which give it its laxative properties. It is a pale yellow, viscous liquid with a slight odor. Chemically, castor oil is tested for properties like acid value, iodine value, and saponification value. Its main uses are as a cathartic and lubricant in industries like paint, varnish, and soap production.
Any substance which is made from natural or synthetic material or a combination of both used for creating pleasant odour or removed the undesired smell is known as perfumes.
The flavoring agents are the agents which are used to mask the unpleasant taste.
Drugs used for this purpose are Peppermint Oil, Lemon Oil, Orange Oil, Lemongrass Oil, Sandalwood.
This document discusses various terpenoid compounds found in plants, including iridoids, terpenes, and modified terpenoids. It provides classifications of terpenoids based on carbon atom count and discusses the occurrence, extraction, biosynthesis, and biological activities of specific compounds like iridoids, gentian, picrorhiza, quassia, tinospora, artemisia, taxus, and andrographis. Structures of important constituents from each plant are also shown.
Chaulmoogra oil is a fixed oil obtained from seeds of various Hydnocarpus species found in Myanmar. It contains chaulmoogric acid and hydnoctic acid as major constituents. Chaulmoogra oil has bactericidal effects against Mycobacterium leprae and M. tuberculosis, making it useful in the treatment of leprosy, tuberculosis, psoriasis, and rheumatism. It is administered by intramuscular or subcutaneous injection.
Isolation, Identification and Analysis of PhytoconstituentsDr. Siddhi Upadhyay
1) The document discusses the isolation, extraction and identification of various phytoconstituents like terpenoids, glycosides, alkaloids and resins.
2) Extraction methods like solvent extraction, fractional crystallization and chromatography are described for menthol, citral, artemisin, glycyrrhetinic acid, rutin, atropine, quinine, reserpine, caffeine and podophyllotoxin.
3) Identification tests include chemical tests and thin layer chromatography. Rf values are provided for comparison with reference standards.
Coffee is the dried seed of Coffea arabica or C. liberica plants that are native to Ethiopia. The major suppliers of coffee are Brazil and India. Coffee beans contain caffeine, tannins, oils, and other constituents. Caffeine can be extracted from roasted coffee beans using coffee roasters to recover sublimated caffeine. Decaffeinated coffee contains little caffeine. Caffeine is used as a stimulant and to combat effects of CNS depressants.
Tea is prepared from the leaves and leaf buds of Camellia sinensis, which is cultivated in India, Sri Lanka, China, Indonesia, and Japan. Tea leaves contain caffeine, theobromine, theophyll
Utilization of radioactive isotopes in the investigation of biogenetic studiesMs. Pooja Bhandare
Isotopes: TWO TYPES OF ISOTOPES,Radioactive isotopes.
Stable isotopes, Radiolabelled Tracers ( Radiolabelled compounds), Radiotracer Technique, Steps in Tracer Technique,
Selection of Radioisotopes.
Preparation of Radioisotopes.
Introduction/Insertion of Radiolabelled compound in biological system (Plant part) Seperation and determination of labelled compound in various biochemical reaction, Preparation of labelled compounds : Insertion of Radiolabelled compound in plant part, Root feeding, Stem feeding, Direct Injection, Floating Methods, Spray technique, Separation or Isolation of Radiolabelled compound and detection of radioisotope labelled compound. Detection and assay of Radioactive labelled compound, Detector system used (Analysis of Isotopic content). Method in Tracer Technique,
Precursor – Product sequence
Double and Multiple Labelling
. Competitive Feeding,Sequential Analysis
Applications of Tracer Technique
Crude drugs are plant, animal or their parts which after collection are subjected only to drying or making them into transverse/ longitudinal slices pieces or peeling them in some cases. They exist in natural form.
Crude drugs may be derived from various natural sources like Plants, Animals, Minerals, Marine and Micro-organisms etc
The document discusses volatile oils and resins, noting that volatile oils are extracted from plants through distillation or solvent extraction and are mixtures of organic compounds used for things like flavoring, perfumes, and medicine, while resins are solid plant extracts that are insoluble in water but soluble in alcohol and used in things like pharmaceuticals and perfumery. Resins can be natural exudates from plants or prepared extracts and are often associated with volatile oils, gums, or both in combinations like oleoresins, gum-resins, and oleo-gum-resins.
This document discusses various natural sweeteners, including their source, characteristics, and uses. It categorizes sweeteners as nutritive or non-nutritive and outlines various naturally derived sweeteners such as stevia, glycyrrhizin, neohesperidin dihydrochalcone, thaumatin, monellins, honey, agave nectar, and xylitol. It provides details on their extraction sources and chemical properties and compares their sweetness and health effects to traditional sugars.
This document discusses three non-nutritive sweeteners: stevioside, glycyrrhizin, and thaumatin. It describes their sources, preparation methods, properties, and evaluation tests. Stevioside is extracted from the leaves of Stevia rebaudiana and is 160-170 times sweeter than sucrose. Glycyrrhizin is obtained from licorice root and has a liquorice taste. Thaumatin is a protein extracted from the fruit of Thaumatococcus danielli and is 750-1600 times sweeter than sucrose. All three are high intensity sweeteners that are used as sugar substitutes and flavor enhancers in foods and beverages.
Volatile oils can be extracted through three main methods: distillation, solvent extraction, and mechanical expression. Distillation involves boiling or steaming plant material to separate the oils, while solvent extraction soaks plants in solvents like alcohol. Mechanical expression ruptures oil cells without heat, as used for citrus peels.
This document discusses several plant sweeteners including liquorice, honey, stevia, date palm, and sugar cane. Liquorice root contains glycyrrhizin which is 50 times sweeter than sugar. Honey is a sugar secretion from bees containing glucose, fructose, and sucrose. Stevia is extracted from Stevia rebaudiana leaves and contains rebaudioside A, which is 300 times sweeter than sugar. Dates are the sweet edible fruits of the date palm tree Phoenix dactylifera. Sugar cane consists of stems from Saccharum officinarum that vary in color and can reach 5 meters in height.
Biological source method of preparation ,identification test uses of enzymesSUSHILBHOYAR2
This document provides information about 5 enzymes - diastase, papain, pepsin, trypsin, and pancreatin. It discusses the biological sources, methods of preparation, descriptions, identification tests, and uses of each enzyme. The key points covered are:
- Diastase is obtained from rat pancreas or fungi and is used as a digestant and to convert starch to sugars.
- Papain comes from papaya latex and is used as a meat tenderizer and anti-inflammatory.
- Pepsin is derived from pig stomach and used to treat gastric issues and in protein analysis.
- Trypsin is from ox pancreas and given to aid digestion or to remove dead tissue
Turmeric is obtained from the dried rhizomes of the plant Curcuma longa. It contains the yellow chemical curcumin, which makes up 50-60% of turmeric. Curcumin can be isolated from turmeric powder through extraction with alcohol or hexane followed by acetone. Curcumin is identified through chemical tests where it produces a crimson color with sulfuric acid or a reddish brown color with boric acid that turns greenish blue with alkali. Curcumin content can be analyzed using methods like HPLC, where it shows peaks at specific retention times when separated using a Nucleosil NH2 column with ethanol mobile phase and UV detection at 254nm.
Colophony, also known as rosin, is obtained from the distillation residue of pine resin from species of pine trees. It is produced in North America, Northern Europe, Pakistan, and India. Colophony is a pale yellow to brown solid that is insoluble in water but soluble in alcohol, chloroform, ether, and acetic acid. Its major constituent is abietic acid, it has a melting point between 75-85°C, and can be identified through chemical tests involving acetic anhydride and sulfuric acid or copper acetate. Colophony has pharmaceutical uses as a diuretic and in ointments and plasters, and industrial uses in varnishes, soaps,
Volatile oils, also known as essential oils, are complex mixtures of organic compounds extracted from plants. They are typically obtained through hydrodistillation, solvent extraction, expression or other specialized techniques. Volatile oils have several important applications including use in perfumes, cosmetics, flavors, and traditional medicine due to their aromatic properties and biological activities. The specific extraction method used depends on the plant material and desired oil properties.
Describes in detail the complete biological source and synonyms of the plant Cinnamon. Gives important macroscopic characters and microscopic characters as seen in transverse and the lateral sections. Also gives important chemical constituents of the plant, its uses, difference between two species of Cinnamon: Cassia cinnamon and Ceylon cinnamon and some marketed pharmaceutical preparations of Ceylon cinnamon.
Volatile oils, also known as essential oils, are aromatic oily liquids found in many plants. They are highly volatile and evaporate easily at room temperature. Volatile oils are composed of hydrocarbons and oxidized hydrocarbons derived from terpenes. They are found stored in secretory cells, cavities, or channels located in different parts of plants. Volatile oils have various therapeutic uses and are also used in perfumes, cosmetics, and flavorings due to their strong aromas. They are extracted from plants using various techniques including water and steam distillation, solvent extraction, and enfleurage.
1. Glycosides are organic compounds found in plants and animals that contain a sugar (glycone) and non-sugar (aglycone or genin) portion. Upon hydrolysis, the sugar and non-sugar portions separate.
2. There are several types of glycosides based on the atom involved in the glycosidic linkage between the glycone and aglycone, including O-, C-, S-, and N-glycosides.
3. Two common cardiac glycoside drugs that contain glycosides are Digitalis and Aloe. Digitalis contains compounds like digitoxin and gitoxin that have cardiac effects. Aloe contains compounds like aloin that have laxative effects.
Lignans are phenylpropanoid dimers found widely in plants. Podophyllum lignans from Podophyllum species have anticancer and antiviral properties. Their structure contains five rings. Phenylpropane units in lignans are derived from the phenylpropanoid pathway. Secoisolariciresinol diglucoside is a prominent lignan in flaxseed that has antioxidant and antiplatelet effects. Quassinoids from Quassia species have insecticidal, antibacterial, and antitumor properties. Their basic structure contains a beta-carbolinium ion.
Tannins are complex organic polyphenolic compounds found in many plants. There are two main types: hydrolysable tannins which produce gallic acid or ellagic acid when hydrolyzed, and condensed tannins which are resistant to hydrolysis. Catechu and Pterocarpus are sources of tannins. Catechu comes from Uncaria gambier and contains catechin, while Pterocarpus comes from the stem bark of Pterocarpus marsupium and contains kinotannic acid. Tannins have medicinal properties such as astringency and ability to stop bleeding.
Castor oil is obtained from the seeds of the castor oil plant. The main country producers are Brazil, India, and other tropical and subtropical countries. Castor oil contains triglycerides of ricinoleic acid which give it its laxative properties. It is a pale yellow, viscous liquid with a slight odor. Chemically, castor oil is tested for properties like acid value, iodine value, and saponification value. Its main uses are as a cathartic and lubricant in industries like paint, varnish, and soap production.
Any substance which is made from natural or synthetic material or a combination of both used for creating pleasant odour or removed the undesired smell is known as perfumes.
The flavoring agents are the agents which are used to mask the unpleasant taste.
Drugs used for this purpose are Peppermint Oil, Lemon Oil, Orange Oil, Lemongrass Oil, Sandalwood.
This document discusses various terpenoid compounds found in plants, including iridoids, terpenes, and modified terpenoids. It provides classifications of terpenoids based on carbon atom count and discusses the occurrence, extraction, biosynthesis, and biological activities of specific compounds like iridoids, gentian, picrorhiza, quassia, tinospora, artemisia, taxus, and andrographis. Structures of important constituents from each plant are also shown.
Chaulmoogra oil is a fixed oil obtained from seeds of various Hydnocarpus species found in Myanmar. It contains chaulmoogric acid and hydnoctic acid as major constituents. Chaulmoogra oil has bactericidal effects against Mycobacterium leprae and M. tuberculosis, making it useful in the treatment of leprosy, tuberculosis, psoriasis, and rheumatism. It is administered by intramuscular or subcutaneous injection.
Isolation, Identification and Analysis of PhytoconstituentsDr. Siddhi Upadhyay
1) The document discusses the isolation, extraction and identification of various phytoconstituents like terpenoids, glycosides, alkaloids and resins.
2) Extraction methods like solvent extraction, fractional crystallization and chromatography are described for menthol, citral, artemisin, glycyrrhetinic acid, rutin, atropine, quinine, reserpine, caffeine and podophyllotoxin.
3) Identification tests include chemical tests and thin layer chromatography. Rf values are provided for comparison with reference standards.
Coffee is the dried seed of Coffea arabica or C. liberica plants that are native to Ethiopia. The major suppliers of coffee are Brazil and India. Coffee beans contain caffeine, tannins, oils, and other constituents. Caffeine can be extracted from roasted coffee beans using coffee roasters to recover sublimated caffeine. Decaffeinated coffee contains little caffeine. Caffeine is used as a stimulant and to combat effects of CNS depressants.
Tea is prepared from the leaves and leaf buds of Camellia sinensis, which is cultivated in India, Sri Lanka, China, Indonesia, and Japan. Tea leaves contain caffeine, theobromine, theophyll
Utilization of radioactive isotopes in the investigation of biogenetic studiesMs. Pooja Bhandare
Isotopes: TWO TYPES OF ISOTOPES,Radioactive isotopes.
Stable isotopes, Radiolabelled Tracers ( Radiolabelled compounds), Radiotracer Technique, Steps in Tracer Technique,
Selection of Radioisotopes.
Preparation of Radioisotopes.
Introduction/Insertion of Radiolabelled compound in biological system (Plant part) Seperation and determination of labelled compound in various biochemical reaction, Preparation of labelled compounds : Insertion of Radiolabelled compound in plant part, Root feeding, Stem feeding, Direct Injection, Floating Methods, Spray technique, Separation or Isolation of Radiolabelled compound and detection of radioisotope labelled compound. Detection and assay of Radioactive labelled compound, Detector system used (Analysis of Isotopic content). Method in Tracer Technique,
Precursor – Product sequence
Double and Multiple Labelling
. Competitive Feeding,Sequential Analysis
Applications of Tracer Technique
Crude drugs are plant, animal or their parts which after collection are subjected only to drying or making them into transverse/ longitudinal slices pieces or peeling them in some cases. They exist in natural form.
Crude drugs may be derived from various natural sources like Plants, Animals, Minerals, Marine and Micro-organisms etc
The document discusses volatile oils and resins, noting that volatile oils are extracted from plants through distillation or solvent extraction and are mixtures of organic compounds used for things like flavoring, perfumes, and medicine, while resins are solid plant extracts that are insoluble in water but soluble in alcohol and used in things like pharmaceuticals and perfumery. Resins can be natural exudates from plants or prepared extracts and are often associated with volatile oils, gums, or both in combinations like oleoresins, gum-resins, and oleo-gum-resins.
This document discusses various natural sweeteners, including their source, characteristics, and uses. It categorizes sweeteners as nutritive or non-nutritive and outlines various naturally derived sweeteners such as stevia, glycyrrhizin, neohesperidin dihydrochalcone, thaumatin, monellins, honey, agave nectar, and xylitol. It provides details on their extraction sources and chemical properties and compares their sweetness and health effects to traditional sugars.
This document discusses three non-nutritive sweeteners: stevioside, glycyrrhizin, and thaumatin. It describes their sources, preparation methods, properties, and evaluation tests. Stevioside is extracted from the leaves of Stevia rebaudiana and is 160-170 times sweeter than sucrose. Glycyrrhizin is obtained from licorice root and has a liquorice taste. Thaumatin is a protein extracted from the fruit of Thaumatococcus danielli and is 750-1600 times sweeter than sucrose. All three are high intensity sweeteners that are used as sugar substitutes and flavor enhancers in foods and beverages.
artificial sweeteners and plant sweetenersjaythoriya
in this presentation decription about classification of natural and artificial sweeteners. in which two types of sweetening agents are there one is nutritive sweeteners and another is non nutritive sweeteners
Glycyrrhizic acid, also known as glycyrrhizin, is the chief constituent extracted from the roots of licorice. It is a sweet-tasting triterpenoid glycoside that is 30-50 times sweeter than sucrose. Glycyrrhizic acid breaks down into glycyrrhetic acid and glucuronic acid upon hydrolysis. It has various health benefits such as treating ulcers and liver diseases, but can also cause side effects like hypertension if consumed in excessive amounts. Glycyrrhizic acid is used as a flavoring agent in foods and pharmaceutical products due to its sweetness and anti-inflammatory properties.
Natural sweetener which have low calorific value, can be used in diabetic and obese patient. some of them are taste modifying agents, which are not sweet in taste but modify the taste of sour food, can be used as natural sweetener instead of artificial sweetening agents which are high in calorie and can be harmful to our body.
This document discusses several plant-based high-potency sweeteners, including stevia (Stevia rebaudiana) and thaumatin (Thaumatococcus daniellii). It provides details on the source plants, chemical structures, relative sweetness, stability properties, regulatory status, and applications for food and beverage use. The document also reviews the absorption, metabolism, and safety of steviol glycosides from stevia leaves.
The document discusses various plant-based high-potency sweeteners. It provides details on the source plant, chemical structure, sensory properties, and applications of several sweeteners including stevia (Stevia rebaudiana), thaumatin (Thaumatococcus daniellii), lo han guo (morgroside from Siraitia grosvenorii), and others. For each sweetener, the document outlines where the plant is found, how it is used, its sensory properties like sweetness intensity and taste profile, stability, safety studies and regulatory approvals.
This document provides an overview of various high-intensity artificial sweeteners, including their chemical structures, manufacturing processes, benefits, applications, and regulatory status. It discusses both peptide-based sweeteners like aspartame and neotame, as well natural extracts from plants such as stevia and monk fruit. The global market for artificial sweeteners was estimated to be $9.2 billion in 2010 and is projected to reach $9.9 billion by 2016, with the US market accounting for around $6 billion. Aspartame faces competition from newer high-intensity sweeteners, while stevia usage may replace 20-30% of dietary sweeteners, and saccharine consumption is in decline
This document provides an overview of high-intensity artificial sweeteners (HIS) used to reduce calories. It discusses various HIS including peptides (aspartame, neotame, alitame), natural extracts (stevia, monk fruit, thaumatin, brazzein), and synthetics (sucralose, acesulfame-K, saccharine). Each sweetener is described in terms of its chemical structure, manufacturing process, benefits, safety, applications, and regulatory status. The document aims to inform readers about known artificial sweeteners and their use in food and beverages to provide sweetness with little to no calories.
This document discusses plant-based sweeteners as an alternative to sugar. It begins with an introduction to sweet taste and the search for a sucrose substitute. It then discusses the health risks of sugar and ongoing research. The document categorizes sweeteners as natural or artificial, and zero-calorie. It provides details on stevia, including its origin, cultivation, extraction process, properties, applications, and regulatory status. It also briefly mentions thaumatin, a natural sweetener from Thaumatococcus daniellii.
Food additives used in fruit based beveragesSharayuNigade
The document discusses various food additives used in fruit-based beverages, including preservatives like sodium benzoate and sulphur dioxide, antioxidants, sequestrants, emulsifiers, stabilizers, colors, flavors, and sweeteners. It defines these additives, explains their functions and provides examples of common additives used in products like fruit juices, wines, and carbonated drinks. The document concludes that food additives are important for fruit beverage processing but should be used safely and in permitted limits.
Herbal excipients and herbal formulationsmonika kaurav
This document discusses herbal excipients used in pharmaceutical formulations. It defines excipients as substances used as carriers for active pharmaceutical ingredients. Several herbal excipients are described, including starches, gums, cellulose, which are used as binding agents, disintegrants, coatings, and more. The advantages of herbal excipients are their renewable source, biodegradability, and lower cost compared to synthetic excipients. Challenges include potential variation in composition and contamination. Colorants, sweeteners, and binders are also discussed as classes of herbal excipients.
Glycosides are sugar-aglycone complexes found in many plants that enhance the absorption and bioavailability of the aglycone; they are classified based on their sugar units and aglycone structures, and include groups like anthraquinones, saponins, and cardiac glycosides, with the latter having potent effects on heart function when compounds like digitoxin are isolated from plants such as foxglove.
Sweetners,natural and artificial sweetners hashem1001
This document discusses several natural and artificial sweeteners, including their properties and uses. Sucrose is the prototypical sweet substance, while fructose is sweeter. Honey, maple syrup, and molasses are bulk sweeteners derived from plants. Artificial sweeteners like aspartame, saccharin, and sucralose are much sweeter than sugar but provide few or no calories. Polyols provide bulk and texture like sugar but are only partially absorbed. High intensity sweeteners allow reduced sugar content in foods.
Food color and artifical sweeteners.pptxShahinSafana
This document provides information on food colors and artificial sweeteners. It discusses natural and artificial colors, listing examples of each type along with their chemical formulas and common food applications. Natural colors discussed include anthocyanins, carotenoids, betanin, annatto, and chlorophylls. Artificial colors mentioned are tartrazine, erythrosine, allura red, and brilliant blue FCF. The document also covers different classes of sweeteners like bulk, intense, natural and artificial. Specific artificial sweeteners like saccharin, sucralose and aspartame are described along with their chemical properties and recommended standards by FSSAI.
strawberry juice prcessing and its nutritional value BeveragessssssssMaria Mehmood
The document discusses the processing and nutritional value of strawberry juice. It outlines the key steps in processing strawberry juice which include preparation, crushing, enzyme treatment, pressing, depectinization, filtration, pasteurization, chemical preservation, packaging and freezing. The document notes that strawberry juice contains many vitamins, minerals and antioxidants that provide health benefits such as reducing inflammation and risk of cancer. It concludes by stating strawberry juice is a nutrient dense beverage.
This document discusses different types of plant-based sweeteners that can be used as alternatives to sugar. It categorizes sweeteners as nutritive or non-nutritive and describes various natural sweeteners such as stevioside, glycyrrhizin, neohesperidin dihydrochalcone, thaumatin, and monellins. These sweeteners are derived from plants like Stevia rebaudiana, Glycyrrhiza glabra, Citrus aurantium, Thaumatococcus danielli, and Dioscoreophyllum cumminsii. While many have advantages like being less caloric or more sweet than sugar, some also have disadvantages like bitter
This document discusses different types of sweetening agents that can be used in drug formulations to mask bitter tastes. It describes nutritive sweeteners like sucrose and fructose, as well as non-nutritive sweeteners like saccharin and aspartame. Several natural sweeteners are then outlined in more detail, including glycyrrhizin, stevioside, neoshesperidin dihydrochalcone, thaumatin, and monellin. Their sources, properties, structures, and uses are provided. Finally, sugar and honey - two common nutritive sweeteners - are summarized with information on their preparation and applications.
This document discusses natural and artificial sweeteners. It defines sweeteners as substances used to sweeten food or drink other than sugar. Natural sweeteners exist in nature without added chemicals, and include honey, maple syrup, and molasses. Artificial sweeteners are sugar substitutes that are either nutritive, adding calories, or non-nutritive. The document goes on to discuss various types of natural and artificial sweeteners in more detail.
This document provides an introduction to various pharmaceutical concepts and processes. It discusses classification of dosage forms and delivery systems. It also covers topics like metrology, packaging, size reduction, mixing, filtration, extraction techniques, distillation, drying, sterilization, aseptic processing, and the production of tablets and capsules. The goal is to familiarize students with key elements of pharmaceutics including equipment, calculations, quality standards, and manufacturing steps for different drug formulations.
Pharmaceutical chemistry is the branch of chemistry that deals with the chemical, biochemical, and pharmacological aspects of drugs. It includes the synthesis, isolation, identification, and structural modification of drugs, as well as studying their chemical characteristics, biochemical changes after administration, and pharmacological effects. Pharmaceutical chemists work in the healthcare industry to develop and evaluate new and improved drugs through activities like drug discovery, metabolism studies, and quality control testing of drugs.
Auditing of vendors and production departmentArpitSuralkar
This document outlines procedures for auditing vendors that produce capsules and sterile products. It discusses the benefits of vendor audits such as cost savings, process improvements, and risk reduction. The document describes the vendor selection process and provides a checklist for auditing vendors, which includes evaluating their premises, personnel, documentation, validation procedures, samples, stability studies, and drug recall processes. The goal of vendor audits is to inspect vendors' quality management systems and ensure they meet requirements for producing capsules and sterile medical products.
An audit of a microbiology laboratory involves independently reviewing the laboratory's records, operations, and procedures to evaluate efficiency, effectiveness, compliance, and risk mitigation. The objectives are to determine the quality systems in place, the knowledge and capabilities of audited staff, and whether continuous improvement is part of the culture. Principles of efficient auditing include proper preparation, documentation, adherence to methods and standard operating procedures, and staff proficiency demonstrations. Types of audits include those of contract manufacturers, contract laboratories, ingredient suppliers, and internal audits. A micro audit works backwards or forwards from samples to comprehensively evaluate microbiological control. The auditing process consists of planning, on-site information gathering, report preparation, exit meeting,
This document discusses amperometric titration, which is an electrochemical titration method that measures current under a constant applied voltage. It explains the principle that the current passing through an indicator electrode is measured during titration as the concentration of electroreducible ions changes. The document outlines the conditions, apparatus used including dropping mercury and rotating platinum microelectrodes, types of amperometric titrations, advantages such as ability to analyze reducible and non-reducible ions, applications including HPLC detection, and disadvantages like inaccurate results from foreign substances.
The document discusses validation of critical utility systems used in pharmaceutical manufacturing facilities. It focuses on validation of HVAC, water, and steam systems. For HVAC validation, it provides details on DQ, IQ, OQ, and PQ protocols including objectives, responsibilities, tests performed. It discusses user requirements, specifications for HVAC control and monitoring. For water system validation, it discusses purification methods, grade of water, and protocols for IQ, OQ and PQ. It also discusses two types of steam systems - house steam and clean steam - and validation considerations for each.
This document discusses plant layout for pharmaceutical manufacturing. It describes the objectives of plant layout being to integrate machinery, materials, and personnel for efficient production. The main types of layouts are process/functional and product/straight line. Key factors that influence layout include the type of process, space available, operational convenience, and health/safety considerations. Special provisions for pharmaceutical plants include preventing mixing of substances and permitting hygienic production. Storage areas for raw materials and finished goods are also discussed.
The document discusses validation regulatory requirements from various authorities like the FDA, EU, WHO, and PIC/S. It outlines the objectives, historical background, and regulations for validation from these bodies. The three main stages of process validation are described as process design, process qualification, and continued process verification. Types of validation like prospective, concurrent, and retrospective are also defined.
1. The document discusses in-process quality control (IPQC) and finished product quality control (FPQC) tests for pharmaceutical capsules according to various pharmacopoeias. It describes 12 key tests including appearance, size, assay, content uniformity, dissolution, and stability testing.
2. The tests evaluate physical parameters like temperature, humidity, weight, and disintegration time. They also assess the content of active ingredients and whether capsules meet specifications for content uniformity, dissolution rate, and stability over time.
3. Ensuring quality through comprehensive testing during and after production is important for regulatory compliance and producing safe, effective pharmaceuticals. The various pharmacopoeias have different standards and requirements but collectively
In process & finished products quality control test of capsuleArpitSuralkar
This document discusses quality control tests for pharmaceutical capsules that are performed during the manufacturing process (IPQC tests) and on finished products (FPQC tests). It provides details on various physical parameters tested by IPQC like temperature, humidity, weight variation. FPQC tests include assays, dissolution testing, stability testing, and ensuring uniform drug content between capsules. The document outlines specific test methods and acceptance criteria from pharmacopeias for tests like disintegration, dissolution and content uniformity. It emphasizes that quality testing helps ensure capsules meet regulatory standards and provides maximum safety for human health.
This document describes quality control tests performed on suppositories, including weight variation testing to ensure suppositories are uniformly sized, hardness testing to evaluate structural integrity, disintegration testing to assess dissolution rate, and drug content testing to verify active ingredient levels. Dissolution testing was also conducted using a basket apparatus to analyze drug release over time in vitro. Finally, short term stability studies were performed on promising formulations by storing samples at room temperature and refrigeration for 6 weeks and testing for drug content and dissolution profile.
Ipqc and fpqc test for pharmaceuticals semi solidsArpitSuralkar
This document discusses quality control tests for semisolid dosage forms like creams, pastes, jellies and ointments. It outlines 11 tests: appearance, spreadability, pH, rate of absorption, irritancy, rate of penetration, consistency, sensitivity, drug content, rheology/viscosity, and rate of release of the active medication. These tests evaluate various physical properties and ensure safety, stability and appropriate release of the drug.
The document discusses the importance of in-process quality control (IPQC) testing for pharmaceuticals. IPQC aims to monitor and control the manufacturing process at various stages to ensure quality products. It involves physical, chemical, biological and microbiological testing of raw materials and samples taken during production. Tests are done before, during and after manufacturing to check identity, purity, potency and meet specifications. IPQC is essential for tablets and involves tests such as hardness, friability, disintegration and dissolution to evaluate quality.
Thermogravimetric analysis is a technique that measures how the mass of a substance changes as it is heated. It involves heating a sample and measuring the weight changes that occur as temperature changes. This allows one to see how the sample's chemical or physical properties change as it is heated or cooled.
Infrared spectroscopy is a technique used to identify chemicals. It works by exposing a sample to infrared light, which causes the bonds between atoms to vibrate at characteristic frequencies. These vibrations are detected and plotted on a graph called an infrared spectrum, which acts as a molecular "fingerprint" to help identify unknown materials.
Electrogravimetry is a method used to separate and quantify ions of a substance, usually a metal, through electrolysis. The analyte solution is electrolyzed, causing the analyte to deposit on the cathode. The cathode is weighed before and after the experiment, and the mass difference is used to calculate the amount of analyte originally present. There are two types of electrogravimetry - constant current electrolysis, where the current is kept constant, and constant potential electrolysis, where the potential is kept constant. In both cases, the deposited analyte on the cathode is measured through changes in mass to determine the concentration in the original solution.
Potentiometry is a method of electroanalytical chemistry used to measure electric potential. It involves measuring the potential of electrochemical cells under zero current conditions. Potentiometric titrations determine the endpoint potentiometrically by measuring changes in potential caused by the addition of a titrant. Common applications include acid-base, redox, precipitation, and complexometric titrations. Commercial potentiometers have advantages over simple potentiometers like temperature control and internal calibration.
Intellectual property rights establish minimum standards of protection for intellectual creations of the mind such as inventions, artistic works, symbols, names and images. They usually give the creator exclusive rights over use of the creation for a certain period of time. The main purpose is to encourage creation of a variety of intellectual goods. There are two main forms - literary and artistic works protected by copyright, and industrial property like patented inventions protected by patents, trademarks, industrial designs, trade secrets and geographical indications. World Intellectual Property Organization promotes IP protection globally.
Refraction is the change in direction of a wave passing between different media. Refractometry uses refractometers to measure the refractive index of substances, which indicates their composition and purity. There are several types of refractometers including Abbe, traditional handheld, and digital handheld refractometers. Abbe refractometers provide high-precision laboratory measurement of refractive index using prisms and a telescope. Traditional handheld refractometers use prisms and a reticle viewed through a magnifying eyepiece. Digital handheld refractometers operate similarly but use an LED light source and photodiodes connected to a digital display. Refractometers are used in industries such as chemistry, food, and medicine to analyze sample composition.
Differential thermal analysis (DTA) is a thermal analysis technique that monitors the temperature difference between a sample and an inert reference material as both are subjected to a controlled temperature program. It detects endothermic or exothermic physical or chemical changes in the sample that cause temperature differences compared to the reference. A DTA instrument consists of sample and reference holders connected to thermocouples, a furnace, temperature programmer, and recording system to plot the differential temperature curve against time or temperature. DTA provides both qualitative and quantitative information about materials and is widely used in industries like pharmaceuticals, polymers, minerals, and cement.
3. Sweetening agents are the substances which are added
to a drug formulation to mask its bitter taste.
Sugar is the most widely used natural sweetening
agents.
Sucrose sets gold standard for sweet taste as it’s taste
is quick, short lived and clear and also abundantly
available in nature
It imparts viscosity to drug and also even act as
preservative for liquid dosage form
It is nutritive too
3
5. Compatible
sweetness even in low concentration.
cheap and easily available
agreeable odour
Stability- heat stable, non hygroscopic
non toxic
inert
Easy to handle in formulation- water
solubility, dissolution rate, etc 5
7. Alternative nutritive sweeteners are sugar alcohol
such as Sorbitol, Mannitol, Lacitol etc.
It is having properties like less sweet and less
calories
FRUCTOSE- 4Kcal/gm the same as sucrose and it
doesn't cause fluctuation in blood sugar, thus better
choice for diabetic patients.
1.5 times sweeter than sugar and cost effective for
food industry.
Still ideal alternative for sugar does not exist?????
7
8. Mostly are artificial*
Examples include Aspartame, Saccahrin,
Clycamate, Alitame etc.
More sweet and thus only small quantity is
required for sweetening food preparation.
8
9. Sweetness potency=
9
E.g. 0.75 gm/litre solution of aspartame
matches with the sweetness of 100 gm/litre
solution of sucrose.
Therefore aspartame is considered as 133
times sweeter than sucrose.
10. The sweetness potency is also dependant
on taster, the pH, the viscosity of
formulation, etc
10
13. Source: It is Steviol glycoside obtained from
leaves of the Stevia rebaudiana Berrtoni
Family: Compositeae.
G.S.-paraguay, Brazil, Japan, China, Taiwan,
Thailand, Malaysia.
13
14. Properties:
14
It is 160- 170 times sweeter than sucrose.
It is heat stable and pH stable and do not ferment.
It does not induce a glycemic response.
Natural sweetener to diabetics and carbohydrate
controlling diets.
The dried leaves of the plant, the water extract of the
leaves and the purified ingredients of extract are used
as sweetening agents.
It’s tainted with a bitter and undesirable after taste.
No side effects.
Both are diterpene Glycosides.
15. Structure: It is made up from a diterpene
known as Steviol. Stevioside is formed by
attaching glucose molecules to the steviol
structure.
15
16. Preparation: the leaves are extracted with water/
water ethanol mix and further purified by treatment
with CaOH2/MgOH2/ carbonate. The ratio of rebaudioside
to stevioside can be increased by using methanol for
extraction of leaves
Rebaudioside A is approximately one third higherthan
stevioside and tastes better. But it is unstable and gets
decopmosed to light.
16
17. Uses- as Sweetning agent as table top
sweetner, in confectioneries, soft drinks and
fruit products.
17
DISADVANTAGE:
Steviol has been reported to be mutagenic.
18. Biological Source : It is a mixed Ca & K salt of
Glycyrrhizic acid found in Glycyrrhiza glabra
Family : Leguminosae
Characteristics :
1. Glycirrhizin is 50x-100x sweeter than Sucrose
2. Ammonium Glycyrrhizinate is 50x sweeter than
sucrose and its salt are characterized by a
delayed sweetness onset and characteristic
liquorice taste more like flavouring agent than
sweetener 18
19. Preparation:
A crude extract of liquorice root is to be prepared
with the help of counter current extraction with
water.
After removal of polysaccharide, Glycyrrizin can be
precipitated from crude extract with sulphuric acid.
Ammonium glycirrhizinate is prepared by treatment
with NH3, followed by subssquent drying and
precipitation with ethanol.
19
20. Chemical Constituents : Chemical Constituents :-It is a
triterpenoids glycoside glycirrhizin.
H2O
Glycyrrhizic acid ---------> Glycyrrhetic acid (aglycone)+
2 molecules of glucuronic acid
The acid form is not particularly water-soluble, but its ammonium
salt is soluble in water at PH greater than 4.5.
It also contain liquirtin and liquiritigenin(flavonoid glycoside).
Glycyrrhizic acid is a triterpenic glycoside of β-Amyrin type
which contains two β-1,2 Glycosidic linked Glucoronic acid.
20
21. As flavoring agent and as flavor enhancing
effect in food products.
In the treatment of peptic ulcers and as an
expectorant, produce anti-inflammatory
effects, is used in the treatment of chronic
hepatitis and cirrhosis.
21
22. Causes Oedema and Hypertension. So,its
dose should be 200 mg per day or less.
22
23. Biological source: It is a flavonoid compound
present in the bitter orange Citrus aurantium Var
amara
Family : Rutaceae
Characteristics:
1. 330x >> Sucrose
2. It is characterized by pronounced Menthol like after
taste which limits its use.
3. It act synergistically with a number of other
sweeteners.
4. It has flavor enhancing system. 23
24. Preparation: It is prepared from neohesperidin by
hydration of neohesperidin under alkaline condition.
24
25. Use: It is used in confectionery, chewing gum,
beverages and dairy products
25
26. Source: -It is obtained from the
arils of fruits of
Thaumatococcus danielli
Family:- Marantaceae.
Properties:
It is approximately 3500 times sweeter than
sucrose
The sweetness shows delayed onset and long
persistent taste. It loses its sweetness on
heating.
It is highly water soluble, stable below Ph 5.5.
26
27. Chemical Constituent:-It is a polypeptide
containing Thaumatin I & Thaumatin II as major
components.
Preparation: It is extracted with water and then
purified by Ion exchange chromatography.
Use: It is used as flavor enhancer rather than
as a sweetener.
It is used as flavor enhancer in confectionary,
chewing gum and similar products.
27
28. The sweetness of thaumatin shows delayed onset and long
persistent liquorices like taste.
28
It loses its sweetness on heating orsplitting disulphide bridge
29. Biological source: It is intensely sweet polypeptide
constituent present in the fruits of tropical plant
Dioscoreophyllum cumminsii Stapf Diels
(serendipity berry)
Family: Menispermaceae
Characteristicc:
1. 2000x >> Sucrose
2. Sweetness of the polypeptide Monellin is sensitive
to conformational changes caused by heat or
hydrolytic decomposition, so rendering it
unsuitable as normal sweetener. 29
30. It is semisythetic sweetener
Based on discovery- halogenation increases
sweetness of carbohydrates
It is trichlorogalctosucralose
30
31. It solubale in water and ethanol
It is 600x >> sucrose
Sweeteness is slightly delayed but persistant
for long time
International authority limits its use*
Evidence of benefit is lacking for long-
term weight loss with some data supporting
weight gain and heart disease risks.
31
33. Are mostly consumed before any normal meals to
stimulate as well as enhance the appetite.
However, the bitter glycoside as a class do possess
almost similar activities like the bitters such as :
digestive, stomachic and febrifuge.
Bitters increases the appetite and stimulates digestion
by acting on the mucous membranes of the mouth.
It also increases the flow of bile, stimulate repair of gut
wall lining and regulate the secretion of insulin and
glucagons.
They stimulate the gustatory nerves and increase the
psychic secretion of gastric juices.
These are also used as anti-tumour and anti-malarial
agents
32
33
34. Some of the bitters belong to
alkaloids
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These are not confined to the same chemical
class, but the most important ones amongst
them contain the glycosides of monoterpenes,
iridoids with pyran cyclo pentane ring.
› Monoterpenes : These are derived from C10 geranyl
phosphate and constitute important components of
volatile oils.
› Iridoids : These are monoterpenoids with pyran
cyclopentane ring.
36. Its is the reciprocal of the dilution of a compound, a liquid
or an extract that still has a bitter taste.
It is determined by comparison with quinine hydrochloride,
the bitterness value of which is set at 2,00,000.
Brucin can also be used as standard for bitterness
Amirogentin present in Gentian is considered bittermost
substance
36
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37. Synonyms: Yellow Gentian, Gall
weed, Bitter wart, Radix Gentianae.
37
Biological Source: It consist of dried rhizome and
roots of Gentiana lutea Linn.
Family : Gentianaceae.
CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS: It consist of the
bitter glycoside GENTIOPICRIN as active
constituent.
› Other bitter compounds are Genticin, Amaropanin,
Amarogentin & Amaoswerin.
› It also contains Gentiin, Gentiamarin, Gentisic acid,
Tannins, Pectin and calcium oxalates.
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38. USES: Potent stomachic and treats GI
problems like indigestion.
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› Emmenogoggue (enhance menstrual flow)
› This bitter stem less is used to treat wounds.
› To treat arthritis, sore throat, Jaundice
› Gentian extract are used in variety of foods and
cosmetics.
Contra indications: Avoided in pregnancy and
lactation. Contra indicated in gastric and
duodenal ulcers.
Adverse effects: Raw extract may cause nausea,
vomiting and diarrhea.
39. Synonyms: Andrographis Paniculata, Kalmegh
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Biological cource: The drug consist of dried or fresh
leaves and aerial portion of the plants Andrographis
paniculata Nees.
Family: Acanthaceae.
Chemical Constituents • It contains a bitter
compound andrographolide up to 1 %
› It is diterpene lactone.
› Some other compounds such as neoandrographolide,
andrographosterol, andrographiside, flavonoids, phenolic
compounds and some waxy material are present.
40. Uses: It is used as bitter tonic and
stomachic.
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› It also known as “green chiretta” in India.
› It is used in the treatment of torpid liver (impaired
nerve impulses) and jaundice.
› The decoction of the plant is used as blood
purifier.
› The decoction of the leaves is given with spices
such as cardamom, clove or cinnamon for
stomach ailment in infants.
› It produce enzyme induction.
41. Synonyms: Chiretta, Chirayta, Bitter stick
Biological source: It consist of the dried
entire herb of Swertia chirata
41
Family: Gentianaceae
Chemical Constituents: It contains bitter glycosides amrogentin
0.04 % and amroswerin 0.03%.
› The other two extremely bitter principles ie chiratin and ophelic
acid also present in crude drug. Other compound include chiratol,
mangiferin, swertianin, chiratanin, chiratenol.
Uses: It is used as bitter tonic and stomachic.
› It is also used as antimalarial in some part of India.
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42. Synonyms: Picrorhiza, Kutki
Biological source: It consist of dried rhizomes and
rootsof Picrorhiza kurroa Royle.
Family: Scrophularelareaceae
Chemical constituents: It contains cyclopentanopyran
monoterpenoids, a class of glycosides.
It contains picroside I, Picroside II and kutkoside up to 3-4 %.
drug also contains about 9 % cathartic acid.
Uses: It is used as bitter tonic and stomachic.
It is also used as laxatives in small doses and cathartic (produce
psychological relief) in large doses.
It is used as hepatoprotective in Jaundice.
It is also used as liver tonic. 42
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43. SYNONYM :- Bitter wood, Jamaica Quassia
BIOLOGICAL SOURCE :- It consists of the dried stem wood of
Picrasma excelsa
Family Simarubaceae
CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS :- It contains about 0.2% of the
bitter lactone i.e. quassin & its hemiacetal Neoquassin .
USES :- Bitter tonic, It is given as an enema in the form of infusion
to expel threadworms, It possesses insecticidal properties.
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44. SYNONYM :- Gudmar , Madhunashini
BIOLOGICAL SOURCE :- It consists of the
leaves of a perennial woody climber plant known as
Gymnema sylvestre
Family Asclepiadaceae .
CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS :- It contains pentriacontae ,
hentriacontane , phytin , α & β chlorophylls. Gymnemic
acids (anti-sweet compounds), the mixture of triterpene
saponins & antraquinone derivatives.
USES :- Stomachic, stimulant, laxative & diuretic.
Antidiabetic due to indirect stimulation of insulin
secretion from pancreas. 44
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45. SYNONYM :- Egyptian privet, Lawsonia -alba
BIOLOGICAL SOURCE :- It consists of fresh or dried leaves
of the plant Lawsonia – inermis
Family: Lythraceae .
CHEMICAL CONSTITUENT :- It contains lawsone(0.5-1%).
Lawsone , the main colouring constituent is said to be a
degradation product of primary glycoside hennosideA,B,&C.
USES :- It is used as hair dye It shows Anti-bacterialand
anti-fungal property 45
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