Glycosides by Ellen Kamhi PhD RN, The Natural Nurse

Glycosides: Definition
SUGAR + AGLYCONE= GLYCOSIDE

- Myriad of Sugars
- Huge variety of Aglycones

Sugar molecule:
enhances absorption
and bioavailability of aglycone.
Plants will make glycosides
by adding a sugar molecule
to an aglycone in order to
enhance solubility in water GINSENOSIDE – glycoside in Ginseng
to transport the molecule.

Glycosides: Definition
• Multitude of glycosides

• Glycosides are not related to
each other botanically or
chemically
• “Business End of a
Glycoside is the
Aglycone, not the sugar

Salicin-found in White Willow Bark,Oil of Wintergreen, Meadowsweet
First Isolated from Meadowsweet

Glycosides:Classification
Glycosides may be classified by the number of sugar units , or the
specific aglycone structure that it contains.

1. SUGAR UNIT:
Many glycosides are 5 carbon (pentose sugars )
or 6 carbon (hexose sugars)
However the sugar may be a mono, di, or oligosaccharide
GlucosidesGlucose
RhamnosidesRhamnose

2. AGLYCONE STRUCTURE:
The business end of the molecule; most classification systems
focus on the Aglycone

Glycosides:Classification
Classes of Glycosides: Examples:
• Cardioactive glycosidesDigitalis, Convallaria
• Anthraquinone glycosidesCascara, Senna, Aloe
• Saponin glycosidesGlycyrrhiza
• Cyanophore glycosides Amygdalin(laetril), Prunisin
• Isothiocynate glycosidesWild mustard
• Flavonoid glycosidesQuercetin
• Alcohol glycosidesSalicin
• Aldehyde glycosidesVanillin (Vanilla orchid)
• Lactone glycosidesSweet & Red clover
• Phenolic glycosidesUvaUrsi, (arbutin)
• Tanninsglycosides polymerized by polyphenol oxidase

Glycosides:Anthraquinones
• Many are found in laxative plants
• Strong cathartic action
• May damage epithelial cells, leading to changes in
absorption,secretion and motility
• Damaged cells are found as apoptotic bodies in
dark pigmented mucosa- pseudomelanosis coli, can
be caused by laxative abuse
Video of Pseudomelanosis:
http://daveproject.org/viewfilms.cfm?film_id=882

• Red-orange pigments
• Water/alcohol soluble
• Function as stimulants/
laxatives/purgatives
• Excessive use can cause
pathological changes in
colon
• Anthraquinones are
characterized by two
aromatic rings fused to Aloe, Buckthorn, Cascara
the central ketone-bearing Sagrada, Rhubarb, Senna
ring
LG

Laxatives
Aloe

Buckthorn
(Rhamus frangula)

Cascara sagrada
(Rhamus purshiana)

Chinese rhubarb
(Rheum palamtum)

Senna
(Senna alexandrina) Rheum rhabarbarum
NOT LAXATIVE

FDA LAXATIVE WARNING

"NOTICE (or WARNING): Contains herbs (insert name of herbs)

that can act as stimulant laxatives. Prolonged steeping time can
increase the risk of adverse laxative effects, including: nausea,
vomiting, abdominal cramps, and diarrhea. Chronic use of laxatives
can impair colon function. Use of laxatives may be hazardous in
the presence of abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, or rectal bleeding.
Laxative-induced diarrhea does not significantly reduce absorption
of food calories. Acute or chronic diarrhea may result in serious
injury or death.“

http://www.pueblo.gsa.gov/cic_text/health/teatime/597_tea.html


Senna:
Glycoside: Sennoside A

Dimeric glycoside

two 3 UNIT Phenolic
groups attached with
hydrogen bonding

Cascara
Glycoside: Cascarosides

glucose

glucose
LG

Cascara (Rhamnus purshiana)
• The bark of the tree

• Grows in Washington and BC,Canada

• Collected in May

• Dried for one year to oxidize glycosides to give them a
milder action

• Never use in UC, Crohns , IBS

• Pregnancydon’t use Except if labor has stalled
LINK: mechanism of action study:
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2289777?dopt=Abstract

Cascara
• Aged bark is a mild stimulant laxative
• Cascarosides are one of many anthraquinone
glycosides; some of these are also anticarcinogenic
• Excessive use can cause pathological changes in
colon mucosa glucose

glucose
Cascaroside A
LG

Aloe

Glycosides:
aloe-emodin and emodin- anthraquinones

• Aloe gel does not contain
anthraquinones
• Aloe resin: aloe-emodin &
its glycosides, aloin
(barbaloin), aloinoside
• Aloe-emodin is anti-
carcinogenic; also found in
Turkey Rhubarb(Rheum palmatum)
ingredient in Essiac formula
Link to study:
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12445860?dopt=Abstract
LG

Chinese Rhubarb( also called
Turkey Rhubarb):

Glycoside:
Glucorhein
Rhein ( aglycone)

Favorite Chinese cathartic
Root of plant is used

Prevents kidney damage

Li X, Wang H. Chinese herbal
medicine in the treatment of
chronic kidney disease. Adv
Chronic Kidney Dis.
2005;12:276-81.

Senna
Glycosides: sennosides, glycosides of „dianthrones‟ -
molecules made with two anthraquinone skeletons

glucose

glucose
LG

Glycosides: Saponins
„Saponins‟ come from the word saponify
soap-like
Water soluble sugars attached to either a
lipophilic steroid(C 27) or triterpenoid (C 30)
Wide array of diverse plants contain saponins
Common Characteristics:
Bitter taste
Hemolytic activity
Form stable foam in water upon shaking

Hydrophobic-Hydrophilic Asymmetry
lowers surface tension- causes soaplike foaming
effect


Three main classes of Saponins:

Triterpenoid glycosides ( 5 rings)

Steroidal glycosides (4 rings)

Steroidal alkaloid glycosides

MEDICINAL EFFECTS :

• Adaptogenic/amphoteric
• Alterative
• Antihelminthic
• Antifungal
• Antimicrobial/Immunomodulation (both humoral and cellular)
• Anti ulcerogenic
• Cholesterol-lowering
• Expectorant (via reflex irritation and lowering surface tension)
• Hemolytic
• Hepatoprotective (Bupleurem’s saikosaponins)
• Adrenotrophic hormone releasers (ACTH)
• Calcium channel blockers (Panax)
• Diuretic
• Vascular tonics/anti-exhudativeAesculus
• AntiinflammatoryGlycyrrhiza, Guaicum


Natural surfactants, Foaming
agents-

soaps and shampoos.

Antifungal, antibacterial
inhibits cancer cell growth.

Lowers blood cholesterol by binding with bile acids

Thousands of herbs contain saponins:
Eleuthero
Smilax
Licorice
Astragalus
Panax spp.
Calendula
Phytolacca
Codonopsis
Dandelion
Dioscoria
Mullein
Legumes -soy, alfalfa Also Many Vegetables

Licorice Root (Glycyrrhiza glabra)

Glycosides:

Glycyrrhizin (glycyrrhizinic acid)

Liquiritin

Licorice Root
• Isoliquiritigenin :
- inhibits aldose reductase : may reduce
diabetic neuropathy
- inhibits MAO (Monoamine oxidase): may
support mood balance
• Licochalcones: anti-parasitic: eg. Leishmania
has been used for malaria…
• Butein, isoliquiritigenin : stops growth of
melanoma cells in vitro

LG

Licorice Root
• Liquiritigenin (a flavonoid) & its
glycoside, liquiritin, contribute to the
anti-inflammatory & antispasmodic
action of Licorice
• May also be involved in
ulcer-healing properties
• Antimicrobial
• MAO inhibitor

LG

Licorice Root
• Glycyrrhizin (glycyrrhizinic acid): main
triterpenoid saponin in root
• Anti-inflammatory (synergistic with the
flavonoids)
• Inhibits secretion of stomach acid
• Inhibits deactivation of cortisol
• Responsible for raising blood pressure w/excess
ingestion ( sodium & water retention, potassium
excretion, diuresis)
• Immunostimulating, antihepatotoxic, antiviral
LG

Licorice Root
Glycyrrhetinic acid
• antitussive
• flavoring agent-
masks bitter taste,
used in Chinese
formulas for this
purpose
• anti-inflammatory
• relieves peptic ulcers-
inhibits gastric
secretion but
stimulates pancreatic
and mucous secretion

Licorice Root

• The structure of glycyrrhetinic acid is
similar to that of cortisone.
• Both molecules are flat and similar at
position 3 and 11.

• This might be the basis for licorice's
anti-inflammatory action.


• Cortisone • Glycyrrhitinic acid

Steroidal Saponins

• Cholesterol:
example of solid sterol

Glycosides: Cardiac
Steroidal Saponins
Highly specific- powerful action on cardiac tissue.

Sugars are attached to the 3 position of the steroid
nucleus

Two broad categories of Cardiac glycosides:

Cardenolides, C 23, more prevalent in nature

Bufadienolides (Buf-adi-eno-lides) (derived from the skin
of toads (sounds like witches brew!)

Glycosides: Cardiac
• Cardiac steroids: strongest heart
regulators, but most toxic ( eg. Digitalis)

• Phosphodiesterase inhibitors: indirectly
raise cAMP, nontoxic and extremely
useful for CHF ( congestive heart failure)
(eg. Hawthorne (Crataegus spp.)

• Direct adenylate cyclase stimulants :can
also be useful (eg. Forskolin)

STEROIDAL SKELETON:
• Sourcehttp://www2.odn.ne.jp/~had26900/constituents/cardiac_steroid_skeleton.gif:

Glycosides: Cardiac
Actions:

• actions include both beneficial and toxic effects on the
heart.

• Documented since 1500 B.C. as poisons, arrow poisons,
emetics, diuretics, and heart tonics.

• Used in modern treatment of congestive heart failure ,
atrial fibrillation and flutter

• Toxicity issues must be kept in mind

Glycosides: Cardiac
Actions:
Positive inotropic activity- increases contraction of heart muscle-
important in heart failure
Inhibits NA+, K+ , ATPase, increasing intracellular NA+,
which then increases intracellular Ca+, which leads to
enhanced contraction of the cardiac muscle fibers

http://www.sbirc.ed.ac.uk/cyril/gfx/cp_neurophysio2_NaK-pump.jpg

Glycosides: Cardiac
Actions:
• Increase strength of systolic contractions-
decrease length of systole- increase length of
diastole

• Increases the heart‟s resting tone

• Improves cardiac output

• Improves renal flow

• Decreases edema- Pulmonary and Systemic

Glycosides: Cardiac

• The sugar portion of the molecule confers
solubility and distribution
• The more OH groups on the cardiac glycoside
molecule, the more:
Rapid action
Water soluble
Easily excreted
– Safer, but requires more frequent dosing

Glycosides: Cardiac
Cautions:
• Avoid electrolyte depletion and other sources of calcium

• Some are (+) ionotrophic (increased force of contraction)
but negatively (-)chronotrophic (decreases beats, slows
heart)

• Also affect vascular smooth muscle, REDUCING
AFTERLOAD on heart muscle

• Reduce sympathetic tone

• Effect purkinje fibers and Bundle of HIS,
– slowing down conduction

Glycosides: Cardiac

http://www.personal.psu.edu/mjm5267/blogs/202c/heart%202.jpg

Glycosides: Cardiac

Dr. William Withering published
Use of Digitalis to Treat Dropsy
1785

Glycosides: Cardiac

'Dropsy' : swelling of the body, often occurs
with congestive heart disease, when heart does not pump
sufficiently, which causes accumulation of fluid

Main symptoms: swelling of the whole body especially legs
gastrointestinal symptoms
tingling sensation in the skin
tenderness in the calf muscles
increased intra-ocular pressure (glaucoma)

Glycosides: Cardiac
Digitalis for Dropsy
• William Withering (a
prominent physician in his
time) is credited with
„discovering‟ digitalis as a cure
for dropsy in 1775
• In reality, he learned it from a
local „gypsy‟ or „old woman‟
who was curing cases of heart
failure with a formula including
Foxglove … an „old family
recipe‟
LG

Glycosides: Cardiac
• Foxglove has ~ 30 different cardenolides including
digitoxin/digitalin, gitoxin, & gitaloxin
• Powerful cardiac agents that increases contractility of
heart muscle, cardiac output, cardiac work
capacity, heart rate, arterial resistance; narrow
range of safety
• „Purified‟ glycosides currently used in medicine;
whole leaf previously used

LG

Glycosides:Cardiac
• Small doses used clinically for controlling congestive
heart failure
• Larger doses are cardiac poisons
• Native peoples use/d them as arrow poisons
• Steroidal glycosides with an extra lactone ring
attached

LG

Glycoside:Cardiac
• Isolated digitoxin is used in
contemporary pharmacy
• Cardiac glycoside, extracted from
Foxglove (Digitalis purpurea or D.
lanata)

Glycosides: Cardiac
DIGITALIS
• INDICATIONS: CHF, supra-ventricular tachycardia, atrial flutter,
atrial fibrillation

• USUAL DOSE:
1-2 grams USP crude drug proceed to 100-200 mg for maintenance

• REDUCE DOSE by 25% for the elderly or overly thin client, more for
obese

• ONSET OF ACTION: 2-4 hours

• DISSIPATION OF DRUG: 2-3 weeks

• Digitalis is particularly likely to cause toxicity as its cardiac
glycosides are
– less polar,
– less water soluble
– (MORE LIPOPHILIC) and have a longer half life

Glycosides:Cardiac
Lilly of the Valley(Convallaria spp.)

Glycosides:Cardiac
Convalleria

Used for cardiac irregularities with mechanical impediments
– Mitral valve insufficiency
– Feeble circulation with low arterial tension
– Dropsy of cardiac origin
– Palpitation with arrhythmias and vehement (violent) heart
action
– Dyspnea
– Feeble quickened pulse
– Used with Crateagus, it is valuable in BRADYCARDIA
– Use before digitalis, which is more applicable in SEVERE
CHF

Glycosides:Cardiac
Convalleria
• ~ 40 different glycosides
based on several different
aglycones; variable
• Convallatoxin highly
active, but generally no
more than 10% of the
amount ingested can be
absorbed
• Positive inotropic effect;
used for mild cardiac
insufficiency
LG

Convalleria
Glycosides:Cardiac
• Contains anthraquinones-excessive doses cause diarrhea 1st- before
toxicity ensues

• Contains highly water soluble ‘safer’ gycosides:
Convallotoxin, convalloside, convallotoxol

• High in Flavonoids

• Dose is usually 5-30 drops of 1:5 tincture per day

• Favorite of Dr. Bastyr, Founder of Bastyr University of Naturopathic
Medicine:

CCC Cardiac Combo
Crateagus, Cactus & Convallaria

NOTE: Cactus and Crateagus have NO CARDIAC GLYCOSIDES but
instead have flavonoids and other vasoactive amines which help weak
& feeble heart

Hawthorn
• Hyperin, a glycoside of quercetin, is
the main flavonoid in Hawthorn
• Also contains OPC‟s
• Helps heart muscle to work more
efficiently, strengthens contractions,
stabilizes rhythm
• Enhances the utilization of oxygen in
cells
• Contains many antioxidants
• Antispasmodic, anti-inflammatory
LG

Variability: Developmental Stage

OPC levels in Hawthorn flowers are ~ 4x higher
in the bud stage than in open flowers

Cardiovascular Drugs
Herbal Support: Hawthorne

Hawthorne
(Crataegus: laevigata, oxyacantha, monogyna, spp.)

53
53


The Hawthorne is a tree/shrub in the rose family that is widely distributed
and grows in the USA, Europe, western Asia and North Africa. Many parts
of the plant are used. The berries are similar to crabapples and traditional
medicinal and edible preparations used this fruit. Since active constituents
have been isolated and extracted, many more modern medicinal
preparations use mainly the leaves and flowers.
The use of Hawthorne as a heart tonic probably originated due to the
„doctrine of signatures‟ which proposes that plants give „cosmic clues‟
about their potential use. Hawthorne berries have a similarity in color and
shape to the heart. By the first century AD, the Greek medicinal herbalist,
Dioscorides, reported using hawthorne as a heart tonic, among other uses.

54
54

Nutrient Depletion: Hawthorne

Crataegus spp.
 Hawthorne
 Oligomeric
procyanidins,vitexin,vitexin
4’-O-rhamnoside,quercetin,
Rutin
 Leaves and flowers have
highest flaonide
content,esp. OPC
 Also, increases strength of
collagen 20 fold
 Use in OA a.w.a.CV Dz
55


Mechanism of Action - Cardiovascular effects:
• Decreases blood pressure and total peripheral resistance
• Economizes myocardial function : reduces work loa=d on the heart
• Decreases cardiac preload in healthy people
• Inotropic effects (Inotropic: Affecting the force of muscle contraction)
• The inotropic effects of hawthorn may be caused by inhibition of 3',5'-
cyclic adenosine monophosphate diesterase , which in turn decreases
inflammation
• Anti-oxidant activity is protective to heart muscle and circulatory system
due to high flavonoid content

56


Recommended Dosage:
Standardized Extract (18.75% oligomeric procyanidins)
60 mg 3 X/day or or 80 mg 2 X per day.
Standardized ( 2.2 % flavonoids )
100 – 300 mg 3 X per day
 Tincture: 300-900 mg/ day in divided doses
 Capsules Standardized (2% vitexin-2"-0- rhamnoside)
300-1000 mg/ day in divided doses

57


Product Examples
 Hawthorn leaf capsules, 325 mg Standardized (2% vitexin-2"-0-
rhamnoside)
http://www.iherb.com/Nature-s-Answer-Hawthorn-Leaf-Extract-60-Veggie-
Caps/8143?at=0

 Hawthorn extract (leaf, flower) tablets, 80 mg (18.75% Oligomeric
Procyanidins)
http://www.iherb.com/Nature-s-Way-HeartCare-Hawthorn-Extract-120-Tablets/1987?at=0

 Hawthorn Berry Veggie Caps, 500 mg
http://www.iherb.com/Nature-s-Answer-Hawthorn-Berry-120-Veggie-Caps/8115?at=0

58

Studies
Elango, C. , et. al. Hawthorn extract reduces infarct volume and improves
neurological score by reducing oxidative stress in rat brain following
middle cerebral artery occlusion. ( 2009) International Journal of
Developmental Neuroscience. 2009 Aug 25. [Epub ahead of print]
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19712738?itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPa
nel.Pubmed_RVDocSum&ordinalpos=3
Pittler MH, et. al. , (2008) Hawthorn extract for treating chronic heart
failure, Cochrane Database of Systemic Reviews. Jan 23;(1):CD005312.
“AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that there is a
significant benefit in symptom control and physiologic outcomes from
hawthorn extract as an adjunctive treatment for chronic heart failure.”
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18254076?ordinalpos=1&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pub
med_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_SingleItemSupl.Pubmed_Discovery_RA&linkpos=5&log$=relatedreviews&lo
gdbfrom=pubmed

59


Adverse Effects
Proven safe for long term use in centuries of traditional use with minimum
reports of adverse effects
Allergies
Avoid if allergic to hawthorn or to members of the Crataegus genus. There
is a case report of an immediate-type hypersensitivity reaction to hawthorn
plants. It is not known if this applies to formulations taken by mouth.
Side Effects and Warnings
There are limited reports of adverse effects associated with hawthorn.
Numerous human trials, observational studies including over 4,500
patients, and case reports have noted rare adverse effects, including
abdominal discomfort, nausea, agitation, dizziness, headache, fatigue,
shortness of breath, skin rash, insomnia, sweating, and rapid heart rate.
Pregnancy and Breastfeeding
Not recommended due to lack of sufficient data. No reports of adverse
effects.

60

Drug Interactions
Antiarrhythmic medications: Laboratory studies report that constituents contained in
hawthorn have antiarrhythmic activity which may alter the effects of these medications and
possibly the dose needed for treatment. Use with caution. Potential/Theoretical Additive
Effects
– These drugs include amiodarone, bretylium tosylate, adenosine, dofetilide, propafenone,
lidocaine, tocainide, flecainide, ibutilide fumarate, moricizine, quinidine, disopyramide,
procainamide, mexiletine, verapamil, digoxin, propranolol, sotalol, esmolol, acebutolol.
ACE inhibitors: Laboratory studies report that constituents contained in hawthorn have
ACE inhibiting activity which may alter the effects of these medications and possibly the
dose needed for treatment. Use with caution. Potential/Theoretical Additive Effects
– These drugs include benazepril, captopril, enalapril, lisinopril, fosinopril,moexipril,
quinapril, ramipril, trandolapril, perindopril erbumine.
Cardiac glycosides: Laboratory studies report that constituents contained in hawthorn have
cardiac activity which may alter the effects of these medications and possibly the dose
needed for treatment. Use with caution. Potential/Theoretical Additive Effects
– These drugs include digoxin.
Note: all interactions are supported by studies unless noted by potential/theoretical

61


Drug Interactions
Antihypertensive medications: Laboratory studies report that constituents contained in
hawthorn have hyper/hypotensive activity which may alter the effects of these medications
and possibly the dose needed for treatment. Use with caution. Potential/Theoretical
Additive Effects
– These drugs include amlodipine, bepridil, diltiazem, felodipine, isradipine, nicardipine,
nifedipine, nimodipine, nisoldipine, verapamil, benazepril, captopril, enalapril,
lisinopril, fosinopril,moexipril, quinapril, ramipril, trandolapril, perindopril erbumine,
atenolol, esmolol, betaxolol, penbutolol, carteolol, bisoprolol, pindolol, metoprolol,
timolol, sotalol, acebutolol, nadolol, propranolol, labetalol, carvedilol, methyldopa,
clonidine, guanfacine, guanabenz, brimonidine tartrate, dipiprazole, levobunolol,
levobetaxolol, metipranolol, reserpine, prazosin, terazosin, doxazosin meylate,
guanadrel, guanethidine, isosorbide monohydrate, isosorbide dinitrate, nitroglycerin,
hydralazine, minoxidil, papaverine, isoxsuprine, losartan, valsartan, eprosartan
mesylate, telmisartan, candesartan cilexetil, irbesartan.
Vasoconstrictor medications : such as phenylephrine (Neo-Synephrine®), ephedrine or
norepinephrine. Hawthorn may have Potential/Theoretical Antagonistic Effects

Note: all interactions are supported by studies unless noted by potential/theoretical

62

Nutrient Depletion: Coleus

• Antihypertensive medications:
Laboratory data has reported that constituents contained in coleus leaf have
antihypertensive activity which may alter the effects of these medications and
possible the dose needed for treatment. Use with caution.
Potential/Theoretical
– Drugs include amlodipine, bepridil, diltiazem, felodipine, isradipine, nicardipine,
nifedipine, nimodipine, nisoldipine, verapamil, benazepril, captopril, enalapril,
lisinopril, fosinopril,moexipril, quinapril, ramipril, trandolapril, perindopril
erbumine, atenolol, esmolol, betaxolol, penbutolol, carteolol, bisoprolol, pindolol,
metoprolol, timolol, sotalol, acebutolol, nadolol, propranolol, labetalol, carvedilol,
methyldopa, clonidine, guanfacine, guanabenz, brimonidine tartrate, dipiprazole,
levobunolol, levobetaxolol, metipranolol, reserpine, prazosin, terazosin, doxazosin
meylate, guanadrel, guanethidine, isosorbide monohydrate, isosorbide dinitrate,
nitroglycerin, hydralazine, minoxidil, papaverine, isoxsuprine, losartan, valsartan,
eprosartan mesylate, telmisartan, candesartan cilexetil, irbesartan.

63

Glycosides: Flavonol
Quercitin
• More than 135 different glycosides exist in leaves,
fruits, flowers
• Rutin (quercetin-3-rutinoside) used for capillary
fragility & venous integrity
• Hyperin (hyperoside; quercetin-3-galactoside), main
flavonoid in Hawthorn; also in St. Johnswort – helps
prevent cataracts; may contribute to antidepressive
activity
• Quercetin inhibits mast cell degranulation
• Powerful anti-inflammatory
• Rich dietary sources: Onion, Kale, Broccoli,
Lingonberry, Cranberry, Black Currant, Tea
LG

Isoflavones: Glycosides

Most isoflavones actually occur as the glucose
conjugates; aglycones are present in the plants, but
LG
only in small amounts

Anthraquinones in Yellow Dock
• Emodin, chrysophanol,
rhein & related
glycosides
• Contribute to aperient
activity

LG

Chromones
• Related to the flavonoids
• Khellin (from Ammi visnaga)
• Cardiovascular tonic:
for angina, atherosclerosis, high
cholesterol
• Vasodilator
• Antispasmodic
• Also used for asthma
(bronchodilator) & is
antitussive via CNS
LG
action Photo © Werner Arnold 2003

Quinones: Naphthoquinones
Drosera (Sundew) contains plumbagin:
antibacterial, antispasmodic (for cough),
immunostimulant

LGPhoto © Richard Bailey 2003 The Carnivorous Plant Society www.thecarnivorousplantsociety.org

Anthraquinones in Hypericum
• St. Johnswort contains a complex
anthraquinone relative, hypericin
(a „bianthraquinone‟)
• Aka a „naphthodianthrone‟
• Occurs with pseudohypericin
• Colors the oil red
• Contributes to antiviral & antidepressant
activities
• Responsible for photoreactivity
• Synergistic with the flavonoids, xanthones,
& hyperforin
LG

Cardiac Glycosides in Milkweeds

• Found in all species of Asclepias
• Components of the milky latex
LG • Toxic to vertebrates, but not to butterflies

Isoflavones: Glycosides

Most isoflavones actually occur as the glucose
conjugates; aglycones are present in the plants, but
only in small amounts

Glycosides by Ellen Kamhi PhD RN, The Natural Nurse

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