ELECTROGRAVIMETRY
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Electrogravimetry is a method used to separate and quantify ions of a substance, usually a metal, through electrolysis. The analyte solution is electrolyzed, causing the analyte to deposit on the cathode. The cathode is weighed before and after the experiment, and the mass difference is used to calculate the amount of analyte originally present. There are two types of electrogravimetry - constant current electrolysis, where the current is kept constant, and constant potential electrolysis, where the potential is kept constant. In both cases, the deposited analyte on the cathode is measured through changes in mass to determine the concentration in the original solution.
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3. How polarograms are generated by plotting current vs. applied voltage and the different regions that can be seen on a polarogram.
4. Factors that influence the diffusion current measured, such as concentration of the analyte, diffusion coefficient, and drop lifetime. Equations for calculating diffusion current are also presented.
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- The temperature change observed is directly related to the enthalpy change of the reaction.
- Factors like heat losses, temperature differences between titrant and analyte, and stirring must be controlled for accurate results.
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Potentiometry is an electroanalytical technique that uses potentiometers to measure electrochemical potential. It involves using reference and indicator electrodes immersed in analyte solutions. The potential difference between the electrodes depends on ion activity/concentration based on the Nernst equation, allowing for quantitative analysis. A salt bridge containing a neutral salt maintains electrical neutrality between electrode half-cells. Common reference electrodes include silver/silver chloride and saturated calomel electrodes. Potentiometry is used for pH measurements and potentiometric titrations.
Electrochemical method of analysis
Electrochemical methods are analytical techniques that use measurements of potential, charge, or current to determine an analyte's concentration or characterize its reactivity. There are several types of electrochemical methods including potentiometry, voltammetry, coulometry, conductometry, and dielectrometry. Potentiometry measures the potential of a solution between two electrodes and relates the potential to analyte concentrations. Voltammetry applies a constant or varying potential at an electrode and measures the resulting current. Coulometry completely converts an analyte from one oxidation state to another by applying current or potential and measuring the total current passed. Potentiometric titration uses two electrodes to measure the potential across a solution during a titration rather than using
Electrochemistry, electrophoresis, ise
This document provides an overview of various electrochemical techniques including electrochemistry, electrophoresis, and isoelectric focusing. It discusses the basic principles, components, types, procedures, advantages, disadvantages, applications and potential interferences of these techniques. Electrochemistry involves measuring current or voltage from ion activity and includes potentiometry, amperometry and coulometry. Electrophoresis separates charged particles in an electric field based on their size, charge and other factors. Isoelectric focusing separates molecules based on their isoelectric point.
Potentiometry, voltamemtry and conductometry
This document discusses various electroanalytical techniques used in clinical laboratories including potentiometry, voltammetry, conductometry, and coulometry. Potentiometry measures electrical potential differences using ion-selective electrodes or redox electrodes. Voltammetry and amperometry are sensitive techniques that apply a voltage to induce an electrochemical reaction and measure the resulting current. Conductometry measures how well ions conduct electricity. Coulometry determines the amount of an electroactive substance by measuring the charge required for its oxidation or reduction reaction. The NOVA-8 analyzer is highlighted as an example that can test for electrolytes, pH, hematocrit, and other clinical analytes using these electroanalytical methods.
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Electrogravimetry involves the electrolytic deposition of an element onto an electrode, which is then weighed before and after deposition to determine the amount deposited. There are two main methods - constant current electrolysis, where current is kept constant and potential varies, and constant potential electrolysis, where potential is kept constant. Electrogravimetry can be used to determine the concentration of elements in solutions and to separate elements electrolytically based on their deposition potentials. It has applications in quantitative analysis, electrosynthesis, separating species in solutions, and purifying reagents.
potentiometery
This document provides an introduction to electrochemical methods. It discusses that electrochemistry concerns the interaction of electrical and chemical effects. Five major electrochemical methods are described: potentiometry, conductometry, dielectrometry, voltammetry, and coulometry. Potentiometry involves measuring the potential between two electrodes using a high impedance voltmeter. Ion selective electrodes are discussed in detail, including their types, construction, advantages, limitations, and applications. Other topics covered include electrochemical cells, electrode potentials, the Nernst equation, electrochemical sensors, and potentiometry instrumentation and applications.
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Electrochemistry is the study of chemical reactions involving electric charge transfers. It includes the production of electricity from spontaneous chemical reactions in galvanic cells, and using electrical energy to carry out nonspontaneous reactions in electrolytic cells. Standard electrode potentials provide a quantitative measure of the tendency of a half-reaction to occur, and can be used to predict the direction of redox reactions. The standard hydrogen electrode serves as a reference potential of zero volts.
Electrochemistry shamsiye
prepared notes as pre Tanzanian syllabus by Mr Saad Miraji a bachelor degree holder in science with education (chemistry and biology) currently teaching at Shamsiye boys secondary school advance chemistry
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Pharmaceutical chemistry 1
Pharmaceutical chemistry is the branch of chemistry that deals with the chemical, biochemical, and pharmacological aspects of drugs. It includes the synthesis, isolation, identification, and structural modification of drugs, as well as studying their chemical characteristics, biochemical changes after administration, and pharmacological effects. Pharmaceutical chemists work in the healthcare industry to develop and evaluate new and improved drugs through activities like drug discovery, metabolism studies, and quality control testing of drugs.
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Auditing of microbiology laboratory
An audit of a microbiology laboratory involves independently reviewing the laboratory's records, operations, and procedures to evaluate efficiency, effectiveness, compliance, and risk mitigation. The objectives are to determine the quality systems in place, the knowledge and capabilities of audited staff, and whether continuous improvement is part of the culture. Principles of efficient auditing include proper preparation, documentation, adherence to methods and standard operating procedures, and staff proficiency demonstrations. Types of audits include those of contract manufacturers, contract laboratories, ingredient suppliers, and internal audits. A micro audit works backwards or forwards from samples to comprehensively evaluate microbiological control. The auditing process consists of planning, on-site information gathering, report preparation, exit meeting,
Amperometry
This document discusses amperometric titration, which is an electrochemical titration method that measures current under a constant applied voltage. It explains the principle that the current passing through an indicator electrode is measured during titration as the concentration of electroreducible ions changes. The document outlines the conditions, apparatus used including dropping mercury and rotating platinum microelectrodes, types of amperometric titrations, advantages such as ability to analyze reducible and non-reducible ions, applications including HPLC detection, and disadvantages like inaccurate results from foreign substances.
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The document discusses validation of critical utility systems used in pharmaceutical manufacturing facilities. It focuses on validation of HVAC, water, and steam systems. For HVAC validation, it provides details on DQ, IQ, OQ, and PQ protocols including objectives, responsibilities, tests performed. It discusses user requirements, specifications for HVAC control and monitoring. For water system validation, it discusses purification methods, grade of water, and protocols for IQ, OQ and PQ. It also discusses two types of steam systems - house steam and clean steam - and validation considerations for each.
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This document discusses plant layout for pharmaceutical manufacturing. It describes the objectives of plant layout being to integrate machinery, materials, and personnel for efficient production. The main types of layouts are process/functional and product/straight line. Key factors that influence layout include the type of process, space available, operational convenience, and health/safety considerations. Special provisions for pharmaceutical plants include preventing mixing of substances and permitting hygienic production. Storage areas for raw materials and finished goods are also discussed.
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2. The tests evaluate physical parameters like temperature, humidity, weight, and disintegration time. They also assess the content of active ingredients and whether capsules meet specifications for content uniformity, dissolution rate, and stability over time.
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Ipqc test of tablet
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THERMOGRAVIMETRIC ANALYSIS
Thermogravimetric analysis is a technique that measures how the mass of a substance changes as it is heated. It involves heating a sample and measuring the weight changes that occur as temperature changes. This allows one to see how the sample's chemical or physical properties change as it is heated or cooled.
infrared spectroscopy (IR)
Infrared spectroscopy is a technique used to identify chemicals. It works by exposing a sample to infrared light, which causes the bonds between atoms to vibrate at characteristic frequencies. These vibrations are detected and plotted on a graph called an infrared spectrum, which acts as a molecular "fingerprint" to help identify unknown materials.
POTENTIOMETRY
Potentiometry is a method of electroanalytical chemistry used to measure electric potential. It involves measuring the potential of electrochemical cells under zero current conditions. Potentiometric titrations determine the endpoint potentiometrically by measuring changes in potential caused by the addition of a titrant. Common applications include acid-base, redox, precipitation, and complexometric titrations. Commercial potentiometers have advantages over simple potentiometers like temperature control and internal calibration.
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Intellectual property rights establish minimum standards of protection for intellectual creations of the mind such as inventions, artistic works, symbols, names and images. They usually give the creator exclusive rights over use of the creation for a certain period of time. The main purpose is to encourage creation of a variety of intellectual goods. There are two main forms - literary and artistic works protected by copyright, and industrial property like patented inventions protected by patents, trademarks, industrial designs, trade secrets and geographical indications. World Intellectual Property Organization promotes IP protection globally.
Abbe'S Instrumentation
Refraction is the change in direction of a wave passing between different media. Refractometry uses refractometers to measure the refractive index of substances, which indicates their composition and purity. There are several types of refractometers including Abbe, traditional handheld, and digital handheld refractometers. Abbe refractometers provide high-precision laboratory measurement of refractive index using prisms and a telescope. Traditional handheld refractometers use prisms and a reticle viewed through a magnifying eyepiece. Digital handheld refractometers operate similarly but use an LED light source and photodiodes connected to a digital display. Refractometers are used in industries such as chemistry, food, and medicine to analyze sample composition.
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ELECTROGRAVIMETRY
- 2. EIECTROGRAVIMERY INTRODUCTION Elctrogravimerty is a method used to separation and qantity ion of substance ,usually a metal. In this process ,the analyte solution is electrolyzed . Electrochemical reduction causes the analyte to be deposited on the cathode . The cathode is weight before and after the experiment ,and weighinig by difference is used to calculate the amount of analyte in the original solution . Contolling the potential of the electrode is important to ensure that only the metal being analyzed will be deposited on the electrode.
- 3. PRINCIPLE the main principle involed in this method is the deposition of the solid on an electrode from the analyte solution .
- 4. TYPES OF ELECTROGRAVIMETRY there are two types electrogravimetry method . 1. Constant current electrolysis. 2. Constant potential electrolysis. 1. constant current electrolysis. in this process the current is kept constant ,and potential is increased . Here no contole of the potential of the working elwctrode is exercised ,and the aplied cell potential is held at a more or less constant level but provide a large enough current to complete the electolysis in a reasonable lenth of time . And a fixed ammount of the current can be passing between the anode and cathode .
- 5. The limitation of constant current electrolysis is it cannot be used for the separation of ion in solution containing single species.
- 6. 2 Constant potential electrolysis . ti is the simplest way of performing an analytical electrolysis is to maintain the applied cell potential at acontant value. it is more used in the separation of the compounts from a mixture in which the decomposition potential are not widely separate . A fairy large voltage is applied to working electrode order to force a constant relatively large current flow through the cell. The current is often on the order ot milliamps (ma) instend of microamps(micrometer a),as a typically the case in controlles potential electrogravimery.
- 7. Three electrode system are used. 1. Working electrode : used for the deposition of the sample. 2. Counter electrode: used for the current sink. 3. Reference electrode: maintains the fixed potential despite the change in solution compounts.
- 8. for example : the determination of copper from an acidic solution (either nitric acid or sulphuric acid solution or mixture of two acids) at constat current . Suppose an EMFof 2-3v is applied then the reaction taking placeare given below. At cathode : cu+2 + 2e- cu at Anode : 40H- O2+ 2H2O=4e-
- 9. Electrodeposition is governed by ohms law and faradays two law of electrolysis. Ohms law from ohms law the relation between current ,voltage and resistance is given by, I =V/R Faradays law A . In electrolysis the amount of substance liberated at the electrode of a cell is directiy proportional to theamonut of electricity which passes throught the solution. M Q M=Z Q M= Z I T where , M = mass of the substance liberated at the electrode.
- 10. Z= electrochemical equvient. I= current in ampere. T= time in second. B. The mass of substance liberated is directly proportional to the relative weight of those substance at a particular quqntity of elecricity applied, m1/z1 = m2/ Z2 In electrogravimetry the determination of metal is carried out by above two procedures ,at constant or with controlled potential procedure ,but constant is limited.
- 11. INTRUMENTATION . the apparatus for an analytical electrodeposition with out cathode potential control consist of a sutaible cell and direct current supply. The voltage applied to the cell is controlled by the variable resistance R . A current metal and a voltmeter indicate the approximate current and voltage . The voltage is then maintained at about the initial level until the deposition judged to the complete. APPLICATION used in the succesive deposition of the metals . Example cu , bi, zn ,and sn.
- 12. Used in the simulationeous deposition of the metal . Used in the electro synthesis. Used in the purification process by removing the trace metal from the sample
- 13. THANK YOU