Phonology is the study of how sounds are organized and used in languages. It examines an inventory of sounds and rules for how they interact, and analyzes sound patterns to determine which sounds are significant for a language. Phonetics studies speech sound production, while phonology analyzes sound patterns and interpretations in a particular language. A phoneme is the smallest meaningful sound unit that distinguishes word meanings. Generative phonology assigns phonetic representations to utterances based on a speaker's internal grammar. Non-linear models like autosegmental and metrical phonology treat representations as multi-dimensional. Lexical phonology accounts for interactions of morphology and phonology in word formation through ordered levels.

1. PHONOLOGY

2. What is PHONOLOGY?
• Phonology is the study of how sounds are
organized and used in natural languages.
• Phonology is just one of several aspects of
language.
• It is related to other aspects such as
phonetics, morphology, syntax, and
pragmatics.

3. The phonologicalsystem of a language includes
• an inventory of sounds and their
features, and
• rules which specify how sounds interact
with each other.

4. Phoneticsvs. Phonology
PHONETICS
• Is the basis for phonological
analysis.
• Analyzes the production of
all human speech sounds,
regardless of language.
PHONOLOGY
• Is the basis for further work
in morphology, syntax,
discourse, and orthography
design.
• Analyzes the sound patterns
of a particular language by
determining which phonetic
sounds are significant, and
explaining how these
sounds are interpreted by
the native speaker.

5. Whyare Phonetics important?

6. What is aphoneme?
• A phoneme is the smallest
contrastive unit in the sound system
of a language.

7. Phonologistshave differingviews of the phoneme.
Followingare the two major views consideredhere:
• In the American structuralist tradition, a
phoneme is defined according to its
allophones and environments.
• In the generative tradition, a phoneme is
defined as a set of distinctive features.

8. Differencebetween phoneand phoneme
PHONE
• One of many possible sounds
in the languages of the world.
• The smallest identifiable unit
found in a stream of speech.
• Pronounced in a defined way.
• Represented between brackets
by convention.
– Example:
• [b], [j], [o]
PHONEME
• One of many possible sounds
in the languages of the world.
• A minimal unit that serves to
distinguish between meanings
of words.
• Pronounced in one or more
ways, depending on the
number of allophones.
• Represented between slashes
by convention.
– Example:
• /b/, /j/, /o/

9. MODELS OF PHONOLOGY
• In classical phonemics, phonemes and their possible
combinations are central.
• In standard generative phonology, distinctive features
are central. A stream of speech is portrayed as linear
sequence of discrete sound-segments. Each segment is
composed of simultaneously occurring features.
• In non-linear models of phonology, a stream of speech
is represented as multidimensional, not simply as a
linear sequence of sound segments. These non-linear
models grew out of generative phonology:
• autosegmental phonology
• metrical phonology
• lexical phonology

10. GenerativePhonology
• Generative phonology is a component of
generative grammar that assigns the correct
phonetic representations to utterances in such
a way as to reflect a native speaker’s
internalized grammar.

11. Levels of phonologicalrepresentation
• An underlying representation is the most basic
form of a word before any phonological rules
have been applied to it. Underlying
representations show what a native speaker
knows about the abstract underlying
phonology of the language.
• A phonetic representation is the form of a
word that is spoken and heard.

12. Distinctivefeatures
• Distinctive features make it possible to
capture the generalities of phonological rules.

13. Linearity
• A stream of speech is portrayed as a sequence
of discrete sound segments. Each segment is
composed of simultaneously occurring
features.

14. What is autosegmental phonology?
• Autosegmental phonology is a non-linear
approach to phonology that allows phonological
processes, such as tone and vowel harmony, to
be independent of and extend beyond individual
consonants and vowels.
• Autosegmental phonology treats phonological
representations as multi-dimensional, having
several tiers. Each tier is made up of a linear
arrangement of segments. The tiers are linked to
each other by association lines that indicate how
the segments on each tier are to be pronounced
at the same time.

15. What is metricalphonology?
• Metrical phonology is a phonological theory
concerned with organizing segments into
groups of relative prominence. Segments are
organized into syllables, syllables into metrical
feet, feet into phonological words, and words
into larger units.
• This organization is represented formally by
metrical trees and grids.

16. What islexicalphonology?
• Lexical phonology is an approach to
phonology that accounts for the interactions
of morphology and phonology in the word
building process.
• The lexicon plays a central, productive role in
the theory. It consists of ordered levels, which
are the domain for certain phonological or
morphological processes.

17. The followingare crucial componentsof lexical
phonology:
Lexical rules …
• Apply only within words.
• Are prone to exceptions.
• Require morphological
information.
• Must be structure-
preserving.
• Will not be blocked by
pauses.
• Apply first.
Post-lexical rules …
• Apply within words or across
word boundaries.
• Do not have exceptions.
• Require syntactic information,
or no grammatical information
at all.
• Are not necessarily structure-
preserving.
• Can be blocked by pauses.
• Apply later.

18. Halle andMohananproposethe followingfour
levels of morphologyin the lexicon:
• Level 1: Class 1 derivation, irregular inflection
• Level 2: Class 2 derivation
• Level 3: Compounding
• Level 4: Regular inflection

19. LEVELS OF AFFIXATION
LEVEL 1
• Affixes include:
– -ate, -ion, -ity, -ic, sub-, de-,
in-
• Affixation causes stress
shift:
– photograph/photographic
• Trisyllabic shortening
occurs:
– divine/divinity
LEVEL 2
• Affixes include:
– -ly, -ful, -some, -ness, re-, un-,
non-
• Affixation does not affect
stress:
– revenge/revengeful
• No trisyllabic shortening
occurs:
– leader/leaderless

20. LEVELS OF AFFIXATION
LEVEL 1
• Nasal assimilation occurs:
– in + legal -> illegal
• Affixes may attach to stems:
– re-mit, de-duce
• Affixation is less productive
and more exception ridden.
LEVEL 2
• Nasal assimilation is
blocked:
– un + ladylike -> unladylike,
not *ulladylike
• Affixes attach only to words:
– re-open, de-regulate
• Affixation is more
productive and less
exception ridden.