Phage Gene Regulation.pptx
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A bacteriophage is a virus that infects bacteria. Lambda phage is a temperate bacteriophage that has two life cycle choices: lytic and lysogenic. During lysogeny, the lambda repressor binds to the operator region (OR) on the phage DNA and represses transcription of lytic genes, allowing the phage genome to remain dormant as a prophage integrated into the bacterial chromosome.
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Riboswitches
Riboswitches are RNA elements found in the 5' untranslated region of mRNA that can bind to specific metabolites and undergo a conformational change to regulate gene expression. They are classified based on the ligand they bind and their secondary structure. Examples include TPP, lysine, glycine, FMN, purine, and cobalamin riboswitches. A riboswitch has two domains - an aptamer domain that binds the ligand and an expression platform domain that can adopt two structures to control transcription or translation. Binding of a metabolite can induce formation of a terminator stem loop to terminate transcription, mask the ribosome binding site to inhibit translation initiation, or trigger self-cleavage of the mRNA.
Various model of DNA replication
1. There are four main models of DNA replication: rolling circle replication, theta replication, bidirectional replication of linear DNA, and telomere replication.
2. Rolling circle replication involves nicking circular DNA and using one strand as a template to produce multiple copies of the original circular DNA.
3. Theta replication occurs in prokaryotes and involves unwinding circular DNA at an origin of replication and replicating bi-directionally to form a theta-shaped structure.
4. Bidirectional replication of linear DNA involves unwinding DNA at origins of replication and using leading and lagging strand synthesis to replicate in both directions until the ends of the linear genome are reached.
Genetic recombination in phages
bacteriophages require bacterial host to complete its life-cycle, wherein site-specific genetic recombination occurs. furthermore, homologous recombination also occur in phages in case of multiple infection of the host cell.
operon concept
The document discusses operons, which are groups of prokaryotic genes that are transcribed together to serve a single purpose. Jacob and Monod discovered the operon concept in 1961 while studying E. coli metabolism. An operon contains an operator, promoter, and genes. Regulatory proteins can control operon transcription by repressing or inducing it. Examples discussed include the lac and trp operons, which use different mechanisms of negative and positive induction/repression to control gene expression based on environmental conditions.
Restriction Mapping
Restriction enzymes cut DNA molecules at specific recognition sites. Restriction mapping involves digesting an unknown DNA segment with restriction enzymes and analyzing the fragment sizes to determine the locations of restriction sites. One method involves single and double digestions with two enzymes followed by gel electrophoresis to separate the fragments by size. By comparing the fragment patterns between single and double digestions, the positions of each restriction site can be mapped, generating a restriction map of the DNA segment. Restriction mapping was previously important for characterizing cloned DNA but is now easier using DNA sequencing, though analysis of restriction sites remains useful for comparing chromosomal organization between strains.
Tryptophan operon
The tryptophan operon regulates the biosynthesis of tryptophan in E. coli through transcriptional attenuation and repression. It contains five genes encoding the enzymes needed to synthesize tryptophan. When tryptophan levels are high, the tryptophan repressor binds to the operator site, preventing transcription. Additionally, a regulatory region can form a terminator stem-loop structure to halt transcription if tryptophan tRNA levels are high during translation of the leader mRNA sequence. However, if tryptophan levels are low, the terminator structure does not form and transcription of the operon proceeds.
Co integrated vector
In study of Ti plasmid based vector we study about co integrated vector and binary vector. Here i have tried to share basic about Co-integrated vector
MODELS OF REPLICATION
The document discusses three models of DNA replication:
1) Asymmetric replication - the leading and lagging strands are replicated differently due to the 5' to 3' directionality of DNA polymerase. The leading strand replicates continuously while the lagging strand replicates discontinuously in short Okazaki fragments.
2) D-loop model - replication in mitochondria where one strand is displaced to form a D-loop and replicates first before the other strand.
3) Rolling circle model - used by plasmids and viruses where one strand is nicked and displaced to be used as a template, forming multiple copies linked together in a concatemer.
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Riboswitches
Riboswitches are RNA elements found in the 5' untranslated region of mRNA that can bind to specific metabolites and undergo a conformational change to regulate gene expression. They are classified based on the ligand they bind and their secondary structure. Examples include TPP, lysine, glycine, FMN, purine, and cobalamin riboswitches. A riboswitch has two domains - an aptamer domain that binds the ligand and an expression platform domain that can adopt two structures to control transcription or translation. Binding of a metabolite can induce formation of a terminator stem loop to terminate transcription, mask the ribosome binding site to inhibit translation initiation, or trigger self-cleavage of the mRNA.
Various model of DNA replication
1. There are four main models of DNA replication: rolling circle replication, theta replication, bidirectional replication of linear DNA, and telomere replication.
2. Rolling circle replication involves nicking circular DNA and using one strand as a template to produce multiple copies of the original circular DNA.
3. Theta replication occurs in prokaryotes and involves unwinding circular DNA at an origin of replication and replicating bi-directionally to form a theta-shaped structure.
4. Bidirectional replication of linear DNA involves unwinding DNA at origins of replication and using leading and lagging strand synthesis to replicate in both directions until the ends of the linear genome are reached.
Genetic recombination in phages
bacteriophages require bacterial host to complete its life-cycle, wherein site-specific genetic recombination occurs. furthermore, homologous recombination also occur in phages in case of multiple infection of the host cell.
operon concept
The document discusses operons, which are groups of prokaryotic genes that are transcribed together to serve a single purpose. Jacob and Monod discovered the operon concept in 1961 while studying E. coli metabolism. An operon contains an operator, promoter, and genes. Regulatory proteins can control operon transcription by repressing or inducing it. Examples discussed include the lac and trp operons, which use different mechanisms of negative and positive induction/repression to control gene expression based on environmental conditions.
Restriction Mapping
Restriction enzymes cut DNA molecules at specific recognition sites. Restriction mapping involves digesting an unknown DNA segment with restriction enzymes and analyzing the fragment sizes to determine the locations of restriction sites. One method involves single and double digestions with two enzymes followed by gel electrophoresis to separate the fragments by size. By comparing the fragment patterns between single and double digestions, the positions of each restriction site can be mapped, generating a restriction map of the DNA segment. Restriction mapping was previously important for characterizing cloned DNA but is now easier using DNA sequencing, though analysis of restriction sites remains useful for comparing chromosomal organization between strains.
Tryptophan operon
The tryptophan operon regulates the biosynthesis of tryptophan in E. coli through transcriptional attenuation and repression. It contains five genes encoding the enzymes needed to synthesize tryptophan. When tryptophan levels are high, the tryptophan repressor binds to the operator site, preventing transcription. Additionally, a regulatory region can form a terminator stem-loop structure to halt transcription if tryptophan tRNA levels are high during translation of the leader mRNA sequence. However, if tryptophan levels are low, the terminator structure does not form and transcription of the operon proceeds.
Co integrated vector
In study of Ti plasmid based vector we study about co integrated vector and binary vector. Here i have tried to share basic about Co-integrated vector
MODELS OF REPLICATION
The document discusses three models of DNA replication:
1) Asymmetric replication - the leading and lagging strands are replicated differently due to the 5' to 3' directionality of DNA polymerase. The leading strand replicates continuously while the lagging strand replicates discontinuously in short Okazaki fragments.
2) D-loop model - replication in mitochondria where one strand is displaced to form a D-loop and replicates first before the other strand.
3) Rolling circle model - used by plasmids and viruses where one strand is nicked and displaced to be used as a template, forming multiple copies linked together in a concatemer.
RAPD, RFLP
RFLP and RAPD are PCR-based techniques used to analyze genetic variations between individuals. RFLP involves restricting genomic DNA with enzymes, separating fragments via electrophoresis, and comparing patterns. Variations in fragment lengths indicate polymorphisms. RAPD uses short, arbitrary primers to randomly amplify genomic DNA and compare patterns between individuals. Both techniques are useful for constructing genetic maps, identifying genes, distinguishing individuals, and studying genetic diversity and relationships between organisms.
Promoter and its types
Promoters are regions of DNA located near gene transcription start sites that initiate gene transcription. There are two main types of promoters based on their CG content: high CG content promoters associated with constitutively expressed genes, and low CG content promoters associated with tissue-specific genes. Bidirectional promoters simultaneously control pairs of genes on opposite DNA strands that are coexpressed. Promoters can be constitutive and initiate transcription in all tissues, inducible and require biotic/abiotic factors, or tissue-specific and active only in certain tissues.
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Chromosome walking
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Transcriptional and post transcriptional regulation of gene expression
Gene expression is regulated at the transcriptional and post-transcriptional levels. Transcriptional regulation involves proteins binding to promoter and enhancer sequences to control RNA polymerase recruitment and initiation of transcription. Eukaryotic gene expression requires transcription factors, coactivators, and basal transcription factors to assemble the transcription initiation complex. Post-transcriptional regulation influences RNA processing, transport, translation, and degradation.
Relaxed plasmids & Regulation of copy number
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Expression vectors
This document discusses key components of expression vectors that are important for efficiently expressing cloned genes. It explains that expression vectors contain regulatory sequences like promoters and terminators to control transcription, as well as elements like ribosome binding sites, fusion tags, and selection markers. Specifically, it provides details on tightly regulated promoters, commonly used viral and bacterial promoters, and considerations for promoters in prokaryotic and eukaryotic expression systems. The document also reviews other important vector elements and their functions.
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Protein sorting and targeting
The delivery of newly synthesized protein to their proper cellular destination, usually referred to as protein targeting or sorting.
The mode of protein transport depends chiefly on the location in the cell cytoplasm of the polysomes involved in protein synthesis.
There are two modes of protein sorting:-
1) Co - translational Transportation.
2) Post - translational Transportation.
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This document discusses co-translational and post-translational modifications of proteins. It begins with an introduction to protein modification and defines co-translational and post-translational modifications. It then covers various co-translational modifications including regulation of translation, protein folding, and enzymes that catalyze protein folding. Post-translational modifications discussed include protein cleavage, glycosylation, addition of GPI anchors, ubiquitination, and phosphorylation. The document provides examples and details for many of the modification processes.
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Presented by- MD JAKIR HOSSAIN
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Department of Agricultural Genetic Engineering ,
Faculty of Agricultural Sciences and Technologies,
Nigde Omer Halisdemir University, Turkey
E. Mail- mjakirbotru@gmail.com
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1. Yeast plasmids like the 2 micron circle have been extensively studied and developed into yeast cloning vectors.
2. Shuttle vectors like YEp vectors contain selectable marker genes like LEU2 and bacterial plasmid origins of replication like pBR322, allowing them to replicate in both E. coli and yeast.
3. The 2 micron circle is a 6kb endogenous yeast plasmid that replicates autonomously through an ARS sequence and is maintained at 50-100 copies per cell.
Bacterial Transposons
Bacterial transposons are mobile segments of DNA that can move within bacterial genomes. There are two main types: insertion sequences, which consist only of the DNA required for transposition; and composite transposons, which contain additional genes like antibiotic resistance genes flanked by insertion sequences. Transposons can move within genomes through replicative or conservative transposition and have played an important role in bacterial evolution and antibiotic resistance.
Mitochondria and chloroplast structure and genome organisation
The mitochondrion is a membrane-bound organelle found in eukaryotic cells. It has an outer membrane, intermembrane space, inner membrane, cristae (folds in the inner membrane), and matrix. The inner membrane contains proteins involved in oxidative phosphorylation and ATP synthesis. Mitochondria contain their own circular DNA separate from the cell's nuclear DNA. Chloroplasts are similar organelles found in plant cells that conduct photosynthesis, and also contain their own DNA.
LYTIC AND LYSOGENIC CASCADE.pptx
1) Bacteriophages can undergo either a lytic or lysogenic life cycle. In the lytic cycle, the phage hijacks the host cell's machinery to replicate itself and then causes the cell to burst, releasing new phage particles. In the lysogenic cycle, the phage genome integrates into the host chromosome and replicates with it without killing the cell.
2) The lytic cycle involves adsorption of the phage to the host cell, penetration of the viral DNA, replication of viral genes and proteins, assembly of new viral particles, and lysis of the cell.
3) In the lysogenic cycle, temperate phages like lambda can integrate their genome into the host
PROKARYOTIC GENE.pptx
The document discusses genes in prokaryotes. It defines key terms like gene, prokaryotic gene, and operon. It explains that prokaryotic genes consist of a promoter region, RNA coding sequence, and terminator region. Gene expression involves transcription and translation processes that occur in the cytoplasm. Gene regulation is achieved through repressible and inducible operons like the trp and lac operons, which are controlled by repressor and activator proteins that bind to DNA in response to environmental stimuli.
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Promoter and its types
Promoters are regions of DNA located near gene transcription start sites that initiate gene transcription. There are two main types of promoters based on their CG content: high CG content promoters associated with constitutively expressed genes, and low CG content promoters associated with tissue-specific genes. Bidirectional promoters simultaneously control pairs of genes on opposite DNA strands that are coexpressed. Promoters can be constitutive and initiate transcription in all tissues, inducible and require biotic/abiotic factors, or tissue-specific and active only in certain tissues.
Mitochondrial genome
Mitochondria contain their own circular genome that is 16.5kb in size and located in the mitochondrial matrix. The mitochondrial genome contains 37 genes that encode 13 proteins, 22 tRNAs, and 2 rRNAs. These genes help produce enzymes and proteins that are crucial for oxidative phosphorylation and energy production in mitochondria. The control region of mitochondrial DNA contains signals that regulate mitochondrial DNA and RNA synthesis.
Induction of mutation in neurospora crassa and yeast
Beadle and Tatum conducted experiments with the fungus Neurospora crassa to test the connection between genes and enzymes. They induced mutations in Neurospora and found mutants that could grow in nutrient-rich medium but not minimal medium, showing the mutation disrupted a metabolic pathway. Through further testing of growth in supplemented mediums, they were able to link specific mutations to disrupted amino acid or vitamin biosynthesis pathways. Their work supported the "one gene-one enzyme" hypothesis that individual genes control single enzymes.
Chromosome walking
Chromosome walking is a technique used to analyze large regions of DNA by identifying overlapping clones. It involves selecting a starting clone, subcloning fragments from the ends, and using those fragments to screen a genomic library and identify neighboring clones with overlapping sequences. This process is repeated to "walk" along the chromosome. Chromosome walking was developed in the 1980s and is useful for finding mutations associated with genetic diseases and detecting single nucleotide polymorphisms, though it has limitations with repetitive sequences.
Transcriptional and post transcriptional regulation of gene expression
Gene expression is regulated at the transcriptional and post-transcriptional levels. Transcriptional regulation involves proteins binding to promoter and enhancer sequences to control RNA polymerase recruitment and initiation of transcription. Eukaryotic gene expression requires transcription factors, coactivators, and basal transcription factors to assemble the transcription initiation complex. Post-transcriptional regulation influences RNA processing, transport, translation, and degradation.
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Plasmids are classified as either stringent or relaxed based on their copy number in bacterial cells. Stringent plasmids exist in low copy numbers (<100 copies/cell) and rely on the bacterial genome for replication and segregation. Relaxed plasmids exist in high copy numbers (>100 copies/cell) and replicate independently of the bacterial genome. Relaxed plasmids include ColE1, which uses an antisense RNA mechanism to regulate its copy number based on plasmid concentration in the cell.
Expression vectors
This document discusses key components of expression vectors that are important for efficiently expressing cloned genes. It explains that expression vectors contain regulatory sequences like promoters and terminators to control transcription, as well as elements like ribosome binding sites, fusion tags, and selection markers. Specifically, it provides details on tightly regulated promoters, commonly used viral and bacterial promoters, and considerations for promoters in prokaryotic and eukaryotic expression systems. The document also reviews other important vector elements and their functions.
Protein targeting or translocation of proteins
Protein targeting or protein sorting is the mechanism by which a cell transports to the appropriate positions in the cell or outside of it. Both in prokaryotes and eukaryotes, newly synthesized proteins must be delivered to a specific sub-cellular location or exported from the cell for correct activity. This phenomenon is called protein targeting. Protein targeting is necessary for proteins that are destined to work outside the cytoplasm.This delivery process is carried out based on information contained in the protein itself. Correct sorting is crucial for the cell; errors can lead to diseases. In 1970, Günter Blobel conducted experiments on the translocation of proteins across membranes. He was awarded the 1999 Nobel Prize for his findings. He discovered that many proteins have a signal sequence, that is, a short amino acid sequence at one end that functions like a postal code for the target organelle.
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Protein sorting and targeting
The delivery of newly synthesized protein to their proper cellular destination, usually referred to as protein targeting or sorting.
The mode of protein transport depends chiefly on the location in the cell cytoplasm of the polysomes involved in protein synthesis.
There are two modes of protein sorting:-
1) Co - translational Transportation.
2) Post - translational Transportation.
Co and post translationational modification of proteins
This document discusses co-translational and post-translational modifications of proteins. It begins with an introduction to protein modification and defines co-translational and post-translational modifications. It then covers various co-translational modifications including regulation of translation, protein folding, and enzymes that catalyze protein folding. Post-translational modifications discussed include protein cleavage, glycosylation, addition of GPI anchors, ubiquitination, and phosphorylation. The document provides examples and details for many of the modification processes.
Chloroplast transformation
Presented by- MD JAKIR HOSSAIN
Doctoral Research Scholar
Department of Agricultural Genetic Engineering ,
Faculty of Agricultural Sciences and Technologies,
Nigde Omer Halisdemir University, Turkey
E. Mail- mjakirbotru@gmail.com
Protein dna interactions
Protein-DNA interactions can be either specific or non-specific. Specific interactions involve transcription factors that regulate gene expression by binding to DNA motifs through domains like helix-loop-helix, leucine zipper, or zinc finger motifs. Non-specific interactions involve histones that help structure DNA into nucleosomes within chromatin and can be chemically modified through methylation, demethylation, acetylation, and phosphorylation.
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2. Shuttle vectors like YEp vectors contain selectable marker genes like LEU2 and bacterial plasmid origins of replication like pBR322, allowing them to replicate in both E. coli and yeast.
3. The 2 micron circle is a 6kb endogenous yeast plasmid that replicates autonomously through an ARS sequence and is maintained at 50-100 copies per cell.
Bacterial Transposons
Bacterial transposons are mobile segments of DNA that can move within bacterial genomes. There are two main types: insertion sequences, which consist only of the DNA required for transposition; and composite transposons, which contain additional genes like antibiotic resistance genes flanked by insertion sequences. Transposons can move within genomes through replicative or conservative transposition and have played an important role in bacterial evolution and antibiotic resistance.
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2) The lytic cycle involves adsorption of the phage to the host cell, penetration of the viral DNA, replication of viral genes and proteins, assembly of new viral particles, and lysis of the cell.
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Virus translation
This document discusses translation in eukaryotes and bacteria. It explains that eukaryotic mRNA is typically monocistronic while bacterial mRNA can contain multiple ORFs translated concurrently. The key differences between eukaryotic and prokaryotic translation are described, including initiation factors, ribosome structure, and initiation mechanisms like the Shine-Dalgarno sequence in bacteria versus the 5' cap in eukaryotes. The document also covers post-translational modifications in eukaryotes like glycosylation, acylation, and phosphorylation, as well as intracellular protein transport through the ER, Golgi, and between nuclei.
Group V (Baltimore) viral classification
This document provides an outline and overview of class V viruses based on the Baltimore classification system. It begins with an introduction to virus classification and taxonomy, then describes key features of class V viruses which have negative-sense single-stranded RNA genomes. Examples discussed include rhabdoviruses like rabies virus and orthomyxoviruses like influenza virus. The replication cycles, genome structures, and pathogenic mechanisms of rabies virus and influenza virus are summarized in more detail.
LAMBDA PHAGE AND THEIR REPRODUCTION
Lambda phage is a bacteriophage that infects E. coli and can undergo either lytic or lysogenic replication cycles. In the lytic cycle, the phage attaches to the bacterial cell and injects its DNA, which is then replicated and structural proteins are synthesized. New virions are assembled and released upon lysis of the host cell. In the lysogenic cycle, the phage DNA circularizes and integrates into the bacterial chromosome to form a prophage. The lysogenic bacteria replicate normally with the prophage until it enters the lytic cycle again. The genetic switch between lytic and lysogenic cycles is regulated by the cro and CI proteins of the phage.
Replication-of-Virus.pdf
Viruses replicate inside host cells using the cell's machinery. There are three phases to viral replication: initiation, replication of the viral genome, and assembly/release. Initiation involves attachment and penetration of the host cell. Replication varies depending on whether the virus has DNA or RNA as its genome. RNA viruses must first transcribe their genome into mRNA before it can be translated. DNA viruses can use the host's transcription machinery directly. Assembly involves packaging of new viral particles, which are then released to infect new host cells.
Promoters used in expression vectors
An expression vector is used to express cloned DNA fragments in a host cell. It contains regulatory sequences like promoters and enhancers that efficiently transcribe the insert gene. Common elements in expression vectors include an origin of replication, selective markers, promoters, a multiple cloning site, and a terminator. Escherichia coli is widely used as a prokaryotic expression host due to its fast growth, inexpensive media, and ability to produce both prokaryotic and eukaryotic proteins. The lac and tac promoters are commonly used in E. coli expression vectors as they allow for inducible expression of target genes.
Transcription
Prokaryotic transcription occurs in the cytoplasm and requires the RNA polymerase enzyme, which binds to promoter regions on DNA and initiates transcription. Transcription starts at the promoter and ends at a termination signal, and mRNA can be directly translated during transcription without further processing. Eukaryotic transcription is more complex and occurs inside the nucleus, utilizing five types of RNA polymerases with many subunits to transcribe different RNA molecules. The main difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic transcription is their location, with prokaryotes transcribing in the cytoplasm and eukaryotes transcribing in the nucleus.
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Trp Operon.pptx
The trp operon controls the biosynthesis of tryptophan in E. coli. It contains 5 genes that encode enzymes for tryptophan production. The operon uses attenuation to regulate expression based on tryptophan levels. When tryptophan is low, transcription proceeds through the leader sequence. When tryptophan is high, translation is rapid and a stem loop structure forms, terminating transcription. The trp operon is a repressible system, where the effector molecule allows the repressor to bind the operator and shut down expression.
Lac operon.pptx
The document summarizes the lac operon in E. coli, which controls the breakdown of lactose. The lac operon contains 3 genes - lacZ, lacY, and lacA - that code for enzymes involved in lactose catabolism. In the absence of lactose, a repressor protein binds to the operator region and prevents transcription. In the presence of lactose, it binds to the repressor and induces transcription of the structural genes. The lac operon demonstrates both negative control by the repressor and positive control through induction by lactose binding. Glucose also regulates the operon through catabolite repression involving cAMP levels.
post translational modification.pptx
post translational modification.pptxDepartment of Biotechnology, Kamaraj college of engineering and technology
Post-translational modifications (PTMs) are chemical changes that occur to proteins after translation. PTMs regulate protein activity, localization, and interactions. The main types of PTMs are phosphorylation, glycosylation, ubiquitination, and methylation. Phosphorylation involves the addition of phosphate groups and is important for cell signaling. Glycosylation adds carbohydrate groups and affects protein structure. Ubiquitination tags proteins for destruction, and methylation adds methyl groups, regulating processes like gene expression. PTMs are identified through techniques like mass spectrometry and chromatographic analysis.Inhibitors of protein synthesis.pptx
Inhibitors of protein synthesis.pptxDepartment of Biotechnology, Kamaraj college of engineering and technology
Aminoglycosides like streptomycin bind to the 30S ribosomal subunit and interfere with initiation complex formation, inducing misreading of mRNA and breaking polysomes into monosomes. Chloramphenicol inhibits protein synthesis by binding reversibly to the 50S ribosomal subunit and preventing the binding of aminoacyl tRNA to the acceptor site. Tetracyclines also bind to the 30S ribosomal subunit but prevent the binding of aminoacyl tRNA to the mRNA ribosome complex. Macrolides inhibit protein synthesis by reversibly binding to the 50S ribosomal subunit and suppressing translocation of mRNA.Protein Synthesis.pptx
Protein synthesis involves three main steps - initiation, elongation, and termination. In initiation, the small and large ribosomal subunits assemble along with mRNA and tRNA to form the initiation complex. In elongation, amino acids are added one by one to the growing polypeptide chain. Termination occurs when a stop codon is reached, causing the release of the completed protein. While the overall process is similar between prokaryotes and eukaryotes, there are some key differences like the number of initiation factors and whether mRNA is polycistronic or monocistronic.
Ribosomes.pptx
Ribosomes are organelles found in all cells that synthesize proteins. They consist of RNA and proteins and exist as two subunits - a smaller 30S subunit in prokaryotes and 40S in eukaryotes, and a larger 50S subunit in prokaryotes and 60S in eukaryotes. Ribosomes translate mRNA into proteins through initiation, elongation, and termination steps. Errors in ribosome functioning can lead to improper protein folding and diseases.
Translation Basics.ppt
This document discusses genetic code, tRNA, and translation. It provides definitions of key terms like codon, anticodon, wobble hypothesis. It describes the structure and function of tRNA, including how it is charged with specific amino acids by aminoacyl tRNA synthetases. The document also discusses characteristics of the genetic code, including that it is degenerate, uses triplet codons, and has start and stop signals. It provides information on ribosomes, including their composition in prokaryotes and eukaryotes. In summary, the document provides an overview of the mechanisms and key components involved in translating genetic code into proteins.
Mutation and DNA repair.pdf
Mutation and DNA repair.pdfDepartment of Biotechnology, Kamaraj college of engineering and technology
Mutation is a change in genetic material that can be caused by errors during DNA replication or DNA repair. There are several types of mutations including point mutations, insertions, deletions, and chromosomal mutations. Point mutations include transitions, transversions, missense mutations, and nonsense mutations. Insertions and deletions can disrupt the genetic code. Spontaneous mutations arise naturally while induced mutations are caused by mutagens like radiation, chemicals, or viruses. Mutations can be germline or somatic and can have different effects on protein function and the phenotype. The document provides examples of specific mutations and their effects.TELOMERE AND TELOMERASE.pdf
TELOMERE AND TELOMERASE.pdfDepartment of Biotechnology, Kamaraj college of engineering and technology
Telomeres are repetitive DNA sequences at the ends of chromosomes that protect them from degradation. Telomeres naturally shorten each time a cell divides until they reach a critical shortness that causes cell senescence. Telomerase is an enzyme that adds telomere repeats to chromosome ends and counteracts shortening. It is active in 90% of cancer cells, allowing unlimited cell division by maintaining telomere length, but is not generally active in most adult somatic cells.DNA Replication.pdf
This document discusses DNA replication and the central dogma. It covers the basic requirements for DNA replication including substrates, templates, enzymes, and primers. The stages of replication - initiation, elongation, and termination - are described. Key aspects of the replication process are explained, such as semi-conservative mechanism, unwinding of DNA, formation of replication forks, and bidirectional replication. Differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic DNA replication are highlighted. Finally, various inhibitors of DNA replication are listed.
Structure and function of RNA.pptx
Structure and function of RNA.pptxDepartment of Biotechnology, Kamaraj college of engineering and technology
RNA differs from DNA in several key ways. RNA is typically single-stranded, contains ribose sugar instead of deoxyribose, and contains uracil instead of thymine. There are multiple types of RNA that serve different cellular functions, including messenger RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA), and ribosomal RNA (rRNA). mRNA carries coding information from DNA to the ribosome for protein synthesis. tRNA transfers amino acids to the ribosome during protein assembly according to the mRNA codon sequence. rRNA is a core component of ribosomes and facilitates protein translation.Regulatory elements of transcription.pptx
Regulatory elements of transcription.pptxDepartment of Biotechnology, Kamaraj college of engineering and technology
Transcriptional regulatory elements such as promoters, enhancers, silencers, and insulators help control gene expression. Promoters initiate transcription and contain core and proximal elements. Enhancers can activate transcription from farther distances by binding activator proteins. Silencers negatively regulate genes by binding repressor proteins. Insulators block interactions between genes to prevent neighboring transcriptional effects. These cis-acting elements help precisely regulate protein levels through transcriptional mechanisms.ribozyme.pptx
Ribozymes are RNA molecules that act as enzymes and catalyze biochemical reactions. They were first discovered in 1982 by Thomas Czech and Sidney Altman, who later won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for their discovery. Ribozymes increase the rate and specificity of reactions like phosphodiester bond cleavage and peptide bond synthesis. Common types of ribozymes include self-splicing introns, RNase P, hammerhead ribozymes, and hairpin ribozymes. Artificial ribozymes can also be synthesized in the laboratory by mutating natural ribozymes.
Inhibitors of transcription.pptx
Inhibitors of transcription.pptxDepartment of Biotechnology, Kamaraj college of engineering and technology
Rifampicin binds to the beta subunit of prokaryotic RNA polymerase, inhibiting prokaryotic transcription initiation. It selectively binds bacterial RNA polymerase without affecting eukaryotic polymerases. This allows rifampicin to be an effective treatment for bacterial infections like tuberculosis and leprosy. Alpha amanitin from death cap mushrooms potently inhibits RNA polymerase II during both transcription initiation and elongation, potentially causing death in 10 days from just one mushroom due to failure of gene expression.RNA processing and Splicing.pptx
RNA processing and Splicing.pptxDepartment of Biotechnology, Kamaraj college of engineering and technology
Eukaryotic pre-mRNA undergoes processing in the nucleus before being exported to the cytoplasm for protein synthesis. This involves adding a 5' cap and poly-A tail to increase stability and facilitate export. Introns are also spliced out by the spliceosome, a complex of small nuclear RNAs and proteins that cuts out introns and joins exons to form mature mRNA. Capping occurs at the 5' end shortly after transcription, while polyadenylation adds around 200 adenine nucleotides to the 3' end. Splicing removes intervening intron sequences by cutting and religating exons. These processing steps produce translation-competent mRNA from initial pre-mRNA transcripts.Transcription in Eukaryotes.pptx
Transcription in Eukaryotes.pptxDepartment of Biotechnology, Kamaraj college of engineering and technology
Transcription is the first step in gene expression for eukaryotic organisms where DNA is copied into RNA. This process involves RNA polymerase binding to promoter regions on DNA and synthesizing a complementary RNA strand. Transcription results in RNA transcripts that can then undergo further processing and modification before being translated into proteins.Transcription in Prokaryotes.pptx
Transcription in Prokaryotes.pptxDepartment of Biotechnology, Kamaraj college of engineering and technology
The document summarizes transcription in prokaryotes. It discusses the key components including the template strand, coding strand, and RNA polymerase. RNA polymerase is made up of multiple subunits and recognizes promoter sequences to initiate transcription. The process of transcription involves three phases - initiation when RNA polymerase binds to the promoter, elongation as the RNA strand continuously grows, and termination when RNA polymerase stops synthesis.denaturation and renaturation of dna.pptx
denaturation and renaturation of dna.pptxDepartment of Biotechnology, Kamaraj college of engineering and technology
DNA is a double-helix molecule that carries genetic instructions. It is composed of two strands called polynucleotides made up of nucleotides, each containing a nucleobase (A, T, C, or G), sugar, and phosphate. The strands are stabilized by hydrogen bonds between nucleotides and base stacking. DNA can be denatured by heat, pH extremes, or chemicals, breaking the hydrogen bonds and separating the strands. Denaturation temperature depends on factors like composition, length, and environment. Renaturation occurs when strands reconnect under appropriate conditions.Forces That Stabilize the DNA structure.pptx
Forces That Stabilize the DNA structure.pptxDepartment of Biotechnology, Kamaraj college of engineering and technology
DNA's double helical structure is stabilized by several weak forces that collectively provide strong stabilization. Hydrogen bonding between complementary base pairs provides some stability, while base stacking interactions between the hydrophobic bases, including hydrophobic and van der Waals forces, provide additional stability by burying the bases in the interior. Ionic interactions between the negatively charged phosphate backbone and positive ions like magnesium also contribute to stability. Though each individual interaction is weak, the collective effects of all of these forces interacting along the entire DNA molecule strongly stabilize its double helical structure.Nucleic Acids.pptx
Nucleic acids like DNA and RNA contain the genetic information of living organisms. DNA specifically stores and carries genetic information in the form of genes. It has a double helix structure with two strands coiled around each other. Each strand is made up of repeating nucleotide units containing a phosphate, sugar (deoxyribose in DNA), and one of four nitrogenous bases (A, T, C, G). The bases on each strand bond with each other through hydrogen bonds - A pairs with T and C pairs with G. This discovery of DNA's double helix structure was made in 1953 by James Watson and Francis Crick based on experimental evidence from scientists like Rosalind Franklin, Maurice Wilkins, and Erwin Charg
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Phage Gene Regulation.pptx
- 3. A bacteriophage is a virus that infects and replicates within bacteria. Eg: Lambda phage, T4, T7 Introduction
- 13. • The mRNA transcript produced from the PR promoter does not go beyond PR' at this stage. For the rest of the cycle, lambda phage has two choices: Lytic & Lysogenic
- 14. Mechanism of Molecular switching • During the lysogeny phase CI is switched ON and cro is OFF. • The operator OR is constituted of three binding sites ORI, ORII and ORIII • During the lysogenic state, the lambda repressor at OR is bound at ORI and ORII, sites adjacent to each other. • At these sites, the repressor represses the right ward transcription from the promoter PR. • The expression of cro and other lytic genes is therefore turned OFF.
- 15. Important Definitions – 2 marks • virulent phage – A bacteriophage that can only follow the lytic cycle. • prophage – A phage genome covalently integrated as a linear part of the bacterial chromosome. • lysogeny – The ability of a phage to survive in a bacterium as a stable prophage component of the bacterial genome • temperate phage – A bacteriophage that can follow the lytic or lysogenic pathway. • integration – Insertion of a viral or another DNA sequence into a host genome as a region covalently linked on either side to the host sequences. • excision – Release of phage from the host chromosome as an autonomous DNA molecule. • induction of phage – A phage’s entry into the lytic (infective) cycle as a result of destruction of the lysogenic repressor, which leads to excision of free phage DNA from the bacterial chromosome. • plasmid – Circular, extrachromosomal DNA. It is autonomous and can replicate itself. • episome – A plasmid able to integrate into bacterial DNA.
- 16. THANK YOU