introduction of bacteriophage , discovery, morphology, structure and life cycle of bacteriophage,
imp. of bacteriophage and other briefly define lytic and lysogenic cycle.
A bacteriophage (informally, phage) is a virus that infects and replicates within a bacterium. The term is derived from "bacteria" and the Greek (phagein), "to devour". Bacteriophages are composed of proteins that encapsulate a DNA or RNA genome, and may have relatively simple or elaborate structures. Their genomes may encode as few as four genes, and as many as hundreds of genes. Phages replicate within the bacterium following the injection of their genome into its cytoplasm. Bacteriophages are among the most common and diverse entities in the biosphere.
Phages are widely distributed in locations populated by bacterial hosts, such as soil or the intestines of animals. One of the densest natural sources for phages and other viruses is sea water, where up to 9×108 virions per milliliter have been found in microbial mats at the surface,] and up to 70% of marine bacteria may be infected by phages. They have been used for over 90 years as an alternative to antibiotics in the former Soviet Union and Central Europe, as well as in France. They are seen as a possible therapy against multi-drug-resistant strains of many bacteria (see phage therapy). Nevertheless, phages of Inoviridae have been shown to complicate biofilms involved in pneumonia and cystic fibrosis, shelter the bacteria from drugs meant to eradicate disease and promote persistent infection
Viruses are small, acellular particles that can replicate only in a host cell. They are obligatory intracellular parasites.They
consist of a nucleic acid genome enclosed in a protective protein shell or capsidBacteriophage is the virus that infect bacteria.Bacteriophages were discovered by Frederick Twort(1915)and Felix d'Herelle(1917).
INTRODUCTION:
The first plant virus shown to have a DNA genome and the first shown to replicate by reverse transcription.
Worldwide but only causes significantly losses locally.
It is transmitted by aphids .
Type member of the Caulimovirus genus, contains 11 species and 6 possible members.
significantly impact on plant virology and plant molecular biology.
The virus is an important source of gene regulatory elements, used exclusively in the genetic manipulation of plants.
STRUCTURE:Icosachedral with a diameter of 52Â nm built from 420 capsid protein subunits.
It contains a circular double-stranded DNA molecule of about 8.0 kB .
Dna is interrupted by sitespecific discontinuties resulting from its replication by reverse transcription.
After entering the host, the single stranded nicks in the viral DNA are repaired, forming a supercoiled molecule that binds to histones.
DNA is transcriped into a full length .
Replication
Risk Factors:The Cauliflower mosaic virus promoter (CaMV 35S) is used in most transgenic crops to activate foreign genes which have been artificially inserted into the host plant. It is inserted into transgenic plants in a form which is different from that found when it is present in its natural Brassica plant hosts. This enables it to operate in a wide range of host-organism environments which would otherwise not be possible.
A bacteriophage (informally, phage) is a virus that infects and replicates within a bacterium. The term is derived from "bacteria" and the Greek (phagein), "to devour". Bacteriophages are composed of proteins that encapsulate a DNA or RNA genome, and may have relatively simple or elaborate structures. Their genomes may encode as few as four genes, and as many as hundreds of genes. Phages replicate within the bacterium following the injection of their genome into its cytoplasm. Bacteriophages are among the most common and diverse entities in the biosphere.
Phages are widely distributed in locations populated by bacterial hosts, such as soil or the intestines of animals. One of the densest natural sources for phages and other viruses is sea water, where up to 9×108 virions per milliliter have been found in microbial mats at the surface,] and up to 70% of marine bacteria may be infected by phages. They have been used for over 90 years as an alternative to antibiotics in the former Soviet Union and Central Europe, as well as in France. They are seen as a possible therapy against multi-drug-resistant strains of many bacteria (see phage therapy). Nevertheless, phages of Inoviridae have been shown to complicate biofilms involved in pneumonia and cystic fibrosis, shelter the bacteria from drugs meant to eradicate disease and promote persistent infection
Viruses are small, acellular particles that can replicate only in a host cell. They are obligatory intracellular parasites.They
consist of a nucleic acid genome enclosed in a protective protein shell or capsidBacteriophage is the virus that infect bacteria.Bacteriophages were discovered by Frederick Twort(1915)and Felix d'Herelle(1917).
INTRODUCTION:
The first plant virus shown to have a DNA genome and the first shown to replicate by reverse transcription.
Worldwide but only causes significantly losses locally.
It is transmitted by aphids .
Type member of the Caulimovirus genus, contains 11 species and 6 possible members.
significantly impact on plant virology and plant molecular biology.
The virus is an important source of gene regulatory elements, used exclusively in the genetic manipulation of plants.
STRUCTURE:Icosachedral with a diameter of 52Â nm built from 420 capsid protein subunits.
It contains a circular double-stranded DNA molecule of about 8.0 kB .
Dna is interrupted by sitespecific discontinuties resulting from its replication by reverse transcription.
After entering the host, the single stranded nicks in the viral DNA are repaired, forming a supercoiled molecule that binds to histones.
DNA is transcriped into a full length .
Replication
Risk Factors:The Cauliflower mosaic virus promoter (CaMV 35S) is used in most transgenic crops to activate foreign genes which have been artificially inserted into the host plant. It is inserted into transgenic plants in a form which is different from that found when it is present in its natural Brassica plant hosts. This enables it to operate in a wide range of host-organism environments which would otherwise not be possible.
Bacteria are microscopic, single-celled organisms that thrive in diverse environments. These organisms can live in soil, the ocean and inside the human gut. Humans' relationship with bacteria is complex. Sometimes bacteria lend us a helping hand, such as by curdling milk into yogurt or helping with our digestion.
VIRUS PHARMACEUTICAL MICROBIOLOGY (BP303T)Unit-IIIPart-2Study of morphology, ...Ms. Pooja Bhandare
PHARMACEUTICAL MICROBIOLOGY (BP303T)Unit-IIIPart-2Study of morphology, classification, reproduction/replication and cultivation of Virus. Introduction, Def General characteristics of Viruses: small size characteristic shapes, obligate intracellular parasites no built-in metabolic machinery no ribosomes
only one type of nucleic acid
do not grow in size. Morphology of Virus: Helical, Polyhedral (Icosahedral) Viral Envelop, Complex virus, Classification of virus. Viral Replication LIFE CYCLE OF BACTIRIOPHAGES Lytic cycle: Attachment, Penetration, Biosynthesis, Maturation and Release of progeny Phage Particles. The Lysogenic Cycle, Cultivation of virus : Animal inoculation, Embryonated eggs or chick embryo method and Tissue culture or cell culture: Organ cultures Explant culture and Cell culture. Types of cell culture
1.Primary cell culture: 2. Diploid cell culture (Semi-continuous cell lines):3. Heteroploid cultures (Continuous cell lines):
MULTIPLICATION OF HUMAN VIRUS:1. Attachment of Viral Particles 2. Penetration 3. Uncoating 4. Replication Of Viral Nucleic Acids And Translation Of The Genome 5) Maturation Or Assembly Of Virions. ) 6. Release Of Virions Into The Surrounding Environment
Bacteria are microscopic, single-celled organisms that thrive in diverse environments. These organisms can live in soil, the ocean and inside the human gut. Humans' relationship with bacteria is complex. Sometimes bacteria lend us a helping hand, such as by curdling milk into yogurt or helping with our digestion.
VIRUS PHARMACEUTICAL MICROBIOLOGY (BP303T)Unit-IIIPart-2Study of morphology, ...Ms. Pooja Bhandare
PHARMACEUTICAL MICROBIOLOGY (BP303T)Unit-IIIPart-2Study of morphology, classification, reproduction/replication and cultivation of Virus. Introduction, Def General characteristics of Viruses: small size characteristic shapes, obligate intracellular parasites no built-in metabolic machinery no ribosomes
only one type of nucleic acid
do not grow in size. Morphology of Virus: Helical, Polyhedral (Icosahedral) Viral Envelop, Complex virus, Classification of virus. Viral Replication LIFE CYCLE OF BACTIRIOPHAGES Lytic cycle: Attachment, Penetration, Biosynthesis, Maturation and Release of progeny Phage Particles. The Lysogenic Cycle, Cultivation of virus : Animal inoculation, Embryonated eggs or chick embryo method and Tissue culture or cell culture: Organ cultures Explant culture and Cell culture. Types of cell culture
1.Primary cell culture: 2. Diploid cell culture (Semi-continuous cell lines):3. Heteroploid cultures (Continuous cell lines):
MULTIPLICATION OF HUMAN VIRUS:1. Attachment of Viral Particles 2. Penetration 3. Uncoating 4. Replication Of Viral Nucleic Acids And Translation Of The Genome 5) Maturation Or Assembly Of Virions. ) 6. Release Of Virions Into The Surrounding Environment
The earliest indications of the biological nature of viruses came from studies in 1892 by the Russian scientist Dmitry I. Ivanovsky and in 1898 by the Dutch scientist Martinus W. Beijerinck.
Beijerinck first surmised that the virus under study was a new kind of infectious agent, which he designated contagium vivum
fluidum, meaning that it was a live, reproducing organism that differed from other organisms.
Both of these investigators found that a disease of tobacco plants could be transmitted by an agent, later called tobacco mosaic virus, passing through a minute filter that would not allow the passage of bacteria.
Bacteriophage is the most common and extensively studied virus. The life cycle of bacteriophages. The transfer of their genetic system via the process of transduction (Generalised and Specialised) and studying the gene mapping in phages. This theoretical explanation about viruses and their genetic system will help the learner in the fields of biotechnology, microbiology, basic science, life science, and various other fields of biology.
viruses are intracellular obligate parasites. They are either DNA or RNA viruses. In order to grow in labs, tissue culture is used. Some general characteristics of viruses are discussed here.
air borne diseases and their transmission, in human and plant. TUBERCLOSIS disease ,symptoms treatment.
pneumonia disease their symptoms , treatment. diphtheria
disease symptoms and prevention plant air borne disease fire blight , disease and symptoms ,citrus canker their symptoms and prevention.
"Understanding the Carbon Cycle: Processes, Human Impacts, and Strategies for...MMariSelvam4
The carbon cycle is a critical component of Earth's environmental system, governing the movement and transformation of carbon through various reservoirs, including the atmosphere, oceans, soil, and living organisms. This complex cycle involves several key processes such as photosynthesis, respiration, decomposition, and carbon sequestration, each contributing to the regulation of carbon levels on the planet.
Human activities, particularly fossil fuel combustion and deforestation, have significantly altered the natural carbon cycle, leading to increased atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations and driving climate change. Understanding the intricacies of the carbon cycle is essential for assessing the impacts of these changes and developing effective mitigation strategies.
By studying the carbon cycle, scientists can identify carbon sources and sinks, measure carbon fluxes, and predict future trends. This knowledge is crucial for crafting policies aimed at reducing carbon emissions, enhancing carbon storage, and promoting sustainable practices. The carbon cycle's interplay with climate systems, ecosystems, and human activities underscores its importance in maintaining a stable and healthy planet.
In-depth exploration of the carbon cycle reveals the delicate balance required to sustain life and the urgent need to address anthropogenic influences. Through research, education, and policy, we can work towards restoring equilibrium in the carbon cycle and ensuring a sustainable future for generations to come.
Characterization and the Kinetics of drying at the drying oven and with micro...Open Access Research Paper
The objective of this work is to contribute to valorization de Nephelium lappaceum by the characterization of kinetics of drying of seeds of Nephelium lappaceum. The seeds were dehydrated until a constant mass respectively in a drying oven and a microwawe oven. The temperatures and the powers of drying are respectively: 50, 60 and 70°C and 140, 280 and 420 W. The results show that the curves of drying of seeds of Nephelium lappaceum do not present a phase of constant kinetics. The coefficients of diffusion vary between 2.09.10-8 to 2.98. 10-8m-2/s in the interval of 50°C at 70°C and between 4.83×10-07 at 9.04×10-07 m-8/s for the powers going of 140 W with 420 W the relation between Arrhenius and a value of energy of activation of 16.49 kJ. mol-1 expressed the effect of the temperature on effective diffusivity.
Artificial Reefs by Kuddle Life Foundation - May 2024punit537210
Situated in Pondicherry, India, Kuddle Life Foundation is a charitable, non-profit and non-governmental organization (NGO) dedicated to improving the living standards of coastal communities and simultaneously placing a strong emphasis on the protection of marine ecosystems.
One of the key areas we work in is Artificial Reefs. This presentation captures our journey so far and our learnings. We hope you get as excited about marine conservation and artificial reefs as we are.
Please visit our website: https://kuddlelife.org
Our Instagram channel:
@kuddlelifefoundation
Our Linkedin Page:
https://www.linkedin.com/company/kuddlelifefoundation/
and write to us if you have any questions:
info@kuddlelife.org
Willie Nelson Net Worth: A Journey Through Music, Movies, and Business Venturesgreendigital
Willie Nelson is a name that resonates within the world of music and entertainment. Known for his unique voice, and masterful guitar skills. and an extraordinary career spanning several decades. Nelson has become a legend in the country music scene. But, his influence extends far beyond the realm of music. with ventures in acting, writing, activism, and business. This comprehensive article delves into Willie Nelson net worth. exploring the various facets of his career that have contributed to his large fortune.
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Introduction
Willie Nelson net worth is a testament to his enduring influence and success in many fields. Born on April 29, 1933, in Abbott, Texas. Nelson's journey from a humble beginning to becoming one of the most iconic figures in American music is nothing short of inspirational. His net worth, which estimated to be around $25 million as of 2024. reflects a career that is as diverse as it is prolific.
Early Life and Musical Beginnings
Humble Origins
Willie Hugh Nelson was born during the Great Depression. a time of significant economic hardship in the United States. Raised by his grandparents. Nelson found solace and inspiration in music from an early age. His grandmother taught him to play the guitar. setting the stage for what would become an illustrious career.
First Steps in Music
Nelson's initial foray into the music industry was fraught with challenges. He moved to Nashville, Tennessee, to pursue his dreams, but success did not come . Working as a songwriter, Nelson penned hits for other artists. which helped him gain a foothold in the competitive music scene. His songwriting skills contributed to his early earnings. laying the foundation for his net worth.
Rise to Stardom
Breakthrough Albums
The 1970s marked a turning point in Willie Nelson's career. His albums "Shotgun Willie" (1973), "Red Headed Stranger" (1975). and "Stardust" (1978) received critical acclaim and commercial success. These albums not only solidified his position in the country music genre. but also introduced his music to a broader audience. The success of these albums played a crucial role in boosting Willie Nelson net worth.
Iconic Songs
Willie Nelson net worth is also attributed to his extensive catalog of hit songs. Tracks like "Blue Eyes Crying in the Rain," "On the Road Again," and "Always on My Mind" have become timeless classics. These songs have not only earned Nelson large royalties but have also ensured his continued relevance in the music industry.
Acting and Film Career
Hollywood Ventures
In addition to his music career, Willie Nelson has also made a mark in Hollywood. His distinctive personality and on-screen presence have landed him roles in several films and television shows. Notable appearances include roles in "The Electric Horseman" (1979), "Honeysuckle Rose" (1980), and "Barbarosa" (1982). These acting gigs have added a significant amount to Willie Nelson net worth.
Television Appearances
Nelson's char
Natural farming @ Dr. Siddhartha S. Jena.pptxsidjena70
A brief about organic farming/ Natural farming/ Zero budget natural farming/ Subash Palekar Natural farming which keeps us and environment safe and healthy. Next gen Agricultural practices of chemical free farming.
3. INTRODCTION
• Bacteriophage are virus that
infect bacteria. The term
bacteriophage is derived from a
Greek word meaning “Bacteria
Eater”.
• Bacteriophage are also called
phage or bacterial virus, a group
of virus that infect bacteria.
• Bacteriophage also infect single
celled prokaryotic organisms
known as archaea.
4. • They show genetic variations. Nature of phage genome can
be – single stranded DNA , double stranded DNA , single
stranded RNA. They have gene count ranging from four to
several thousand.
• They are ubiquitous in the environment and are recognized
as most abundant biological agent on earth.
• They are obligate intracellular parasite, infectious acellular
entities.
• Several varieties of bacteriophage exist in the environment
but one type can infect only one or few type of bacteria,
they are very specific to their host cell.
5. Discovery of Bacteriophage
Bacteriophages were
first discovered by
William Twort in 1915.
In 1917, Felix d’Herelle
coined the term
bacteriophage
meaning Bacteria Eater.
6. Shapes and size of Bacteriophage
• There are three basic shapes of
phage:
an icosahedral (20 sided) head
with a tail ,
an icosahedral head without a
tail ,and
a filamentous form
• The most phage ranges in size
from 24-200 nm in length
7. • The largest known bacteriophage is Bacillus megaterium
phage G with capsid size 160nm, tail 453nm in length and
genome size 497 kbp.
8. Morphology of Bacteriophage
A typical bacteriophage is composed of a polyhedral head ,
a shirt collar, and a helical tail
head of phage consist of about 2000 capsomere with
genetic material enclosed within head.
tail is composed of an inner hollow tube that is
surrounded by a contractile sheath with 24 annular rings.
distal end of tail has a basal plate that has tail fiber at
each corner.
10. REPLICATION OF BACTERIOPHAGE
Bacteriophage lack
their own cell. They
infect a bacterial
cell and reproduce
inside it.
Phages are really
very beautiful and
the way they
reproduce is quite
interesting.
11. .
All phage must carry out a specific set of reaction in order
to make more of themselves.
Firstly the phage must be able to recognize a bacterium that
it can multiply in by binding to bacterial cell surface.
Next the phage must inject the genome and genome must be
protected from the bacterial nucleases.
During replication , the phage attaches to the host
bacterial cell , it introduce its gene to the cytoplasm of
host cell. Then it uses the ribosomes of host cell to make
proteins.
12. Life cycle of phage –
A Phage attaches to a bacterium and inject its genetic
material into bacterial cell. Phage take over the machinery
of bacterial cell and use it to produce new phage particles.
The bacterium then turns into a phage factory ,producing
as many as 100 new phages before it bursts , releasing the
phages to attack more bacteria.
Bacteriophage exhibit two major type of life cycle
• Lytic cycle or virulent cycle
• Lysogenic cycle or temperate cycle
During infection a phage usually follow one of these two life
cycles.
13. Lytic cycle
• In the Lytic Cycle, a bacteriophage infects a bacteria and
kills it to release progeny virus. This cycle takes place in the
following steps:
• Adsorption The bacteriophage attaches itself on the
surface of bacteria. This process is known as adsorption. The
tips of the tail fibers attach to specific receptors on the
surface of the bacterial cell.
• Penetration The tail sheath of the phage contracts after
adsorption. The base plate and the tail fibers are attached
firmly to the bacterial cell. The phage muramidase weakens a
part of the cell wall and the hollow core is pushed downwards
through it. The DNA is injected inside the bacterial cell.
14. • Synthesis of Phage components of new virus particles are
produced after the nucleic acid is released into the cell. The
sub-units of phage head, tail and late protein then appear.
The synthesis is carried out by specific enzymes called early
proteins. The nucleus and the cytoplasm also contain the
components of a phage.
• Maturation and Assembly On maturation, the head and tail
protein of phage DNA assemble and each component of
phage DNA is surrounded by a protein coat. Ultimately, the
tail structures are added forming a virion.
• Release the infected bacterial cell is lysed releasing the
progeny phages. The phage enzymes weaken the cell wall of
bacteria during replication
16. Lysogenic cycle
In this, the phage becomes integrated with the chromosome of
the host cell and is known as a prophage. This prophage is
transmitted to progenies at the time of cell division during
reproduction in bacteria. The bacteria carrying a prophage
without being lysed is called “lysogenic bacteria”.
When the lysogenic bacteria multiply, the prophage might be
lost due to excision.
Step 1: A bacteriophage virus infects a bacteria by injecting
its DNA into the bacterial cytoplasm, or liquid space inside of
the cell wall.
Step 2: The viral DNA is read and replicated by the same
bacterial proteins that replicate bacterial DNA.
17. Step 3: The viral DNA can continue using the bacterial
machinery to replicate, or it can switch to the lytic cycle. If
the viral DNA stays in the lysogenic cycle, one copy, or few
copies, of the DNA exist in many bacteria. In the lysogenic
cycle, the DNA only gets replicated when the bacteria are
replicating their own DNA.
Step 4: Eventually, the viral DNA will switch to the lytic
cycle, in which the bacterial mechanisms are used to produce
lots of DNA and lots of capsids, or protein covers, for the
DNA.
Step 5: These capsids get released into the environment,
infect a new bacteria, and the lysogenic cycle may start again.
If the bacteria is weak or dying, the virus may enter straight
into the lytic cycle, in order to avoid dying with the bacteria.
19. One step growth curve
One step growth curve are used to make determinations about life
cycle of virus on a particular host. By following a virus infection during
one life cycle phase of host a growth curve can be constructed and
burst size can be calculated.
Burst size : the burst size is defined as the expected number of
virions produced by one infected cell over its life-time.
The burst size varies in accordance with the specific virus and may
range from below 20 to over 1000.
The phage growth curve starts with a latent or eclipse period. During
this phase, the infection, adsorption, injection and syntheses of new viral
DNA and protein coat occur.
20.
21. • Bacteriophages are used for various
purposes. They are widely used in medical
and research.
• Phage therapy- They are used as
antibiotics against bacteria due to the
same mode of action.
• They are used in the food industry to kill
bacteria in meat or cheese products.
• Bacteriophages are used for diagnostic
purposes.
• They act as a model in research and
studies.
• They are used as a cloning vector in
genetic recombination technique.
Importance of Bacteriophage