a brief on thyroid gland covering following titles:
Introduction
Anatomy and physiology of thyroid gland
Synthesis of thyroid hormones
Regulation
Mechanism of action
Biological function
Describe the structures, relations, and functions of the adrenal gland.
describe the histological structures and clinical importance of the adrenal gland
Thyroid hormone,
structure of hormone,
synthesis of thyroid hormone,
mechanism of Thyroid hormone action,
Physiological effect of Hormone,
Disorders related with thyroid hormone,
drugs used in treatment for the thyroid disorders.
a brief on thyroid gland covering following titles:
Introduction
Anatomy and physiology of thyroid gland
Synthesis of thyroid hormones
Regulation
Mechanism of action
Biological function
Describe the structures, relations, and functions of the adrenal gland.
describe the histological structures and clinical importance of the adrenal gland
Thyroid hormone,
structure of hormone,
synthesis of thyroid hormone,
mechanism of Thyroid hormone action,
Physiological effect of Hormone,
Disorders related with thyroid hormone,
drugs used in treatment for the thyroid disorders.
A power point presentation on thyroid hormones and thyroid inhibitors on subject of pharmacology suitable for reading by undergraduate medical students.
Physiology of Parathyroid glands
Outline :
- Location of Parathyroid glands.
- Who discovered the glands.
- Some info. about it.
- Parathyroid hormone.
- Histology of the gland.
- PTH biosynthesis.
- The calcium-sensing receptors (CaSR)
- Why Calcium is so Important?
- Calcitonin
- vitamin D
-Metabolic bone diseases (Hypercalcaemia and hypocalcaemia)
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Parathyroid hormone (PTH) is one of three key hormones modulating calcium and phosphate homeostasis; the other two are calcitriol (1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D) and fibroblast growth factor 23 (FGF23).
Parathyroid hormone (The Guyton and Hall physiology)Maryam Fida
Parathyroid hormone
Calcium salts in bone provide structural integrity of the skeleton
Calcium ions in extracellular and cellular fluids is essential to normal function of a host of biochemical processes
Neuoromuscular excitability
Blood coagulation
Hormonal secretion
Enzymatic regulation
The important role that calcium plays in so many processes dictates that its concentration, both extracellulary and intracellulary, be maintained within a very narrow range.
Normal level of calcium is about 9.4 mg/dl.
0.1 % extracellular fluid
1 % stored in cells (mitochondria and ER)
99% stored in bones in hydroxyapatite crystals. Very little Ca2+ can be released from the bone– though it is the major reservoir of Ca2+ in the body.
Calcium in Plasma is present in three forms:
1. Ionized and diffusible calcium 50%
2. Protein-bound calcium 41% non diffusible form
90% bound to albumin
Remainder bound to globulins
3. Calcium complexed to serum constituents 9%
Citrate and phosphate
This is a PPT of calcium and phosphate metabolism. Clinical correlation are not included. Hope it is useful to you all. Please Like and Share it with your friends
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Recomendações da OMS sobre cuidados maternos e neonatais para uma experiência pós-natal positiva.
Em consonância com os ODS – Objetivos do Desenvolvimento Sustentável e a Estratégia Global para a Saúde das Mulheres, Crianças e Adolescentes, e aplicando uma abordagem baseada nos direitos humanos, os esforços de cuidados pós-natais devem expandir-se para além da cobertura e da simples sobrevivência, de modo a incluir cuidados de qualidade.
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Uma “experiência pós-natal positiva” é um resultado importante para todas as mulheres que dão à luz e para os seus recém-nascidos, estabelecendo as bases para a melhoria da saúde e do bem-estar a curto e longo prazo. Uma experiência pós-natal positiva é definida como aquela em que as mulheres, pessoas que gestam, os recém-nascidos, os casais, os pais, os cuidadores e as famílias recebem informação consistente, garantia e apoio de profissionais de saúde motivados; e onde um sistema de saúde flexível e com recursos reconheça as necessidades das mulheres e dos bebês e respeite o seu contexto cultural.
Estas diretrizes consolidadas apresentam algumas recomendações novas e já bem fundamentadas sobre cuidados pós-natais de rotina para mulheres e neonatos que recebem cuidados no pós-parto em unidades de saúde ou na comunidade, independentemente dos recursos disponíveis.
É fornecido um conjunto abrangente de recomendações para cuidados durante o período puerperal, com ênfase nos cuidados essenciais que todas as mulheres e recém-nascidos devem receber, e com a devida atenção à qualidade dos cuidados; isto é, a entrega e a experiência do cuidado recebido. Estas diretrizes atualizam e ampliam as recomendações da OMS de 2014 sobre cuidados pós-natais da mãe e do recém-nascido e complementam as atuais diretrizes da OMS sobre a gestão de complicações pós-natais.
O estabelecimento da amamentação e o manejo das principais intercorrências é contemplada.
Recomendamos muito.
Vamos discutir essas recomendações no nosso curso de pós-graduação em Aleitamento no Instituto Ciclos.
Esta publicação só está disponível em inglês até o momento.
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Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
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TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
2. Parathyroid Gland
Human beings have four parathyroid glands,
which are situated on the posterior surface of
upper and lower poles of thyroid gland.
Parathyroid glands are very small in size,
measuring about 6 mm long, 3 mm wide and 2
mm thick, with dark brown color.
3.
4.
5. Histology
Made up of chief cells and oxyphil cells.
1. Chief cells:
Secrete parathormone.
2. Oxyphil cells
Degenerated chief cells and their function is
unknown.
May secrete parathormone during pathological
condition called parathyroid adenoma.
6.
7. Parathormone
Secreted by parathyroid gland
Essential for the maintenance of blood calcium
level within a very narrow critical level.
Maintenance of blood calcium level is necessary
because calcium is an important inorganic ion for
many physiological functions.
8. Calcium is very essential for many activities in the body
such as:
1. Bone and teeth formation
2. Neuronal activity
3. Skeletal muscle activity
4. Cardiac activity
5. Smooth muscle activity
6. Secretory activity of the glands
7. Cell division and growth
8. Coagulation of blood
9. Source of Secretion
Secreted by the chief cells of the parathyroid
glands.
11. Half-life and Plasma Level
Parathormone has a half-life of 10 minutes.
Normal plasma level of PTH is about 1.5 to 5.5 ng/dL.
12. Synthesis
Synthesized from the precursor called pre-pro-PTH
containing 115 amino acids.
First, the pre-pro-PTH enters the endoplasmic
reticulum of chief cells of parathyroid glands.
There it is converted into a prohormone called pro-
PTH, which contains 96 amino acids.
Pro-PTH enters the Golgi apparatus, where it is
converted into PTH.
13. Metabolism
60 – 70 % of PTH is degraded by Kupffer cells of liver,
by means of proteolysis.
Degradation of about 20% to 30% PTH occurs in
kidneys and to a lesser extent in other organs.
14. Actions Of Parathormone On Blood Calcium Level
Primary action of PTH is to maintain the blood
calcium level within the critical range of 9 to 11
mg/dL.
PTH maintains blood calcium level by:
1. Resorption of Ca from Bones
2. Reabsorption Ca from the renal tubules (Kidney)
3. Absorption of Ca from Gastrointestinal tract.
15. On Bones
Parathormone enhances the resorption of calcium
from the bones by acting on osteoblasts and
osteoclasts of the bone.
Resorption of calcium from bones occurs in two
phases:
1. Rapid phase
2. Slow phase.
16. Rapid phase
Rapid phase occurs within minutes after the release
of PTH from parathyroid glands.
Immediately after reaching the bone, PTH gets
attached with the receptors on the cell membrane
of osteoblasts and osteocytes.
The hormone-receptor complex increases the
permeability of membranes of these cells for
calcium ions.
17. It accelerates the calcium pump mechanism, so
that calcium ions move out of these bone cells and
enter the blood at a faster rate.
18. Slow phase
Slow phase of calcium resorption from bone is due
to the activation of osteoclasts by PTH.
When osteoclasts are activated, some substances
such as proteolytic enzymes, citric acid and lactic
acid are released from lysosomes of these cells.
All these substances digest or dissolve the organic
matrix of the bone, releasing the calcium ions.
The calcium ions slowly enter the blood.
19. PTH increases calcium resorption from bone by
stimulating the proliferation of osteoclasts also.
20. On Kidney
PTH increases the reabsorption of calcium from the
renal tubules along with magnesium ions an
hydrogen ions.
It increases calcium reabsorption mainly from distal
convoluted tubule and proximal part of collecting
duct.
PTH also increases the formation of 1,25- di-
hydroxycholecalciferol (activated form of vitamin
D) from 25-hydroxycholecalciferol in kidneys.
21.
22. On Gastrointestinal Tract
PTH increases the absorption of calcium ions from
the GI tract indirectly.
It increases the formation of 1,25-
dihydroxycholecalciferol in the kidneys.
This vitamin, in turn increases the absorption of
calcium from GI tract.
Thus, the activated vitamin D is very essential for the
absorption of calcium from the GI tract & PTH is
essential for the formation of activated vitamin D.
23. Role of PTH in the activation of vitamin D
Vitamin D is very essential for calcium absorption
from the GI tract.
But vitamin D itself is not an active substance.
Instead, vitamin D has to be converted into 1, 25-
dihydroxycholecalciferol in the liver and kidney in
the presence of PTH.
The 1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol is the active
product
24.
25. Activation of vitamin D
There are various forms of vitamin D.
But, the most important one is vitamin D3.
It is also known as cholecalciferol.
Vitamin D3 is synthesized in the skin from 7-
dehydrocholesterol, by the action of ultraviolet rays
from the sunlight.
It is also obtained from dietary sources.
26. The activation of vitamin D3 occurs in two steps:
First step
Cholecalciferol (vitamin D3) is converted into 25-
hydroxycholecalciferol in the liver
This process is limited and is inhibited by 25-
hydroxycholecalciferol itself by feedback
mechanism
27. Second step
25-hydroxycholecalciferol is converted into 1,25-
dihydroxycholecalciferol (calcitriol) in kidney.
It is the active form of vitamin D3.
This step needs the presence of PTH
28.
29. Role of Calcium Ion in Regulating 1, 25-
Dihydroxycholecalciferol
When blood calcium level increases, it inhibits the
formation of 1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol. The
mechanism involved in the inhibition of the
formation of 1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol is as
follows:
30. 1. Increase in calcium ion concentration directly
suppresses the conversion of 25-
hydroxycholecalciferol into 1,25-dihydroxy
cholecalciferol.
2. Increase in calcium ion concentration decreases
the PTH secretion, which in turn suppresses the
conversion of 25-hydroxycholecalciferol into 1,25-
dihydroxycholecalciferol
31. Actions of 1, 25-Dihydroxycholecalciferol
It increases the absorption of calcium from the
intestine, by increasing the formation of calcium
binding proteins in the intestinal epithelial cells.
These proteins act as carrier proteins for facilitated
diffusion, by which the calcium ions are transported.
The proteins remain in the cells for several weeks
after 1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol has been
removed from the body, thus causing a prolonged
effect on calcium absorption
32. It increases the synthesis of calcium-induced ATPase
in the intestinal epithelium
It increases the synthesis of alkaline phosphatase in
the intestinal epithelium
It increases the absorption of phosphate from
intestine along with calcium
33.
34. Regulation Of Parathormone
Secretion
Blood level of calcium is the main factor
regulating the secretion of PTH.
Blood phosphate level also regulates PTH
secretion.
35. Blood Level of Calcium
Parathormone secretion is inversely proportional to
blood calcium level.
Increase in blood calcium level decreases PTH
secretion.
Conditions when PTH secretion decreases are:
1. Excess quantities of calcium in the diet
2. Increased vitamin D in the diet
3. Increased resorption of calcium from the bones, caused
by some other factors such as bone diseases.
36. On the other hand, decrease in calcium ion
concentration of blood increases PTH secretion, as in
the case of rickets, pregnancy and in lactation
37.
38. Blood Level of Phosphate
PTH secretion is directly proportional to blood
phosphate level.
Whenever the blood level of phosphate increases it
combines with ionized calcium to form calcium
hydrogen phosphate.
This decreases ionized calcium level in blood which
stimulates PTH secretion